














'^a 
V ,^^"- 












s.^"^^. 



i^n;:> /*'>:^'\ ^°.'^{»i>- .Z-:^^'. 









''• '^*..** y^Mlk^ \,<f :sm\ %/ 



.0* c"'**, 'O. 






j.^'% '• 



















,♦ .^^W^ 








^o. 


















*^o< 






^^^.^•-•^'a^ 



.•^' 




^. V 







o Ay 



,♦ /\ ^^ 







* .'^ 



;♦ ft^ 






A HISTORY 



OF 



THE UNITED STATES 



BY 

WILLIAM M. DAVIDSON 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOPEKA. KANSAS 



, J jJ, '';. »" ,». »»: 



CHICAGO 

SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 

1902 



THE LIBRARY «IF 

e@NGRESS, 
Two Copies Receive* 

MAY. 5 1902 

COI^RItHT ENTRY 

ICLASS^ C»^ XXa Na 

3 ^ V t^i' 

COPY B. 



OOPYRIGHT, 1902, BY 
SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 



TYPOGRAPHY BY 
MAKSH, AITKEN A CUHTIS UOMfANY, 



PREFACE 

Xo other nation in the history of the workl presents a 
more thrilling narrative than does the United States of 
America. As we glance hack across the centuries, the name 
America, as first written four centuries ago, is seen but 
dimly through the mist of history. To-day it is written in 
large letters on the map of the world. Its opportunities 
have multiplied and grown with the centuries, likewise its 
responsibilities. The rapid march of events in the national 
life the past few years has brought it into a larger place in 
the eyes of the civilized world than ever before. As, teach- 
ers, we must realize this, and our boys and girls must be 
made to feel, as they pursue the narrative of our country's 
history, that they themselves are in its very current. As 
they contemplate our country's struggles, and its glorious 
achievements, they must be made to feel that the perpetuity 
of national life depends upon the uprightness of individual 
life: that no nation is truly great, nor can ever re- 
main great, except it be founded upon pure and happy 
homes, and upon that nobility of character which reveals 
itself at all times and everywhere in the integrity of both 
the private and the public life of each individual citizen of 
the republic. 

The writer of this book has tried to tell simply and plainly 
the story of our country's history. The sources from which 
he has drawn his material include all the standard histories 
of the United States, to all of which he acknowledges his 
indebtedness. Ilis thanks are especially due to Professor 
E. E. Sparks of the University of Chicago, who inspired him 
to undertake the task of telling the story of his country's 
progress, and who gave full permission to use from his 

i 



11 PREFACE 

"Expansion of the American People'' sucli material as would 
be of service in the growth chapters, — \"I, X, XII, and 
XVI, — which are a feature of the book. Special acknowledg- 
ment is also made to Professor Frank H. Hodder of the 
University of Kansas, for many valuable suggestions secured 
from his outlines of xVmerican history and his progressive 
map study. A few personal friends have kindly aided with 
many valuable suggestions, and several of these friends have 
read every line of proof and in divers ways have encouraged 
the completion of the book. To all these the author 
expresses his sincere thanks. 

Believing thoroughly that geography and history go hand 
in hand; indeed, that "history is geography in motion," a 
large number of relief and surface maps have been inserted 
at appropriate places in the text. These maps, it is felt, 
will appeal at once to every teacher of history, as it is now 
accepted by all historians that places of settlement, growth 
of population, and even the issues of battles have been 
largely determined by the physical features of the country. 

The full-page portraits of Columbus, Washington, Lincoln, 
and McKinley represent the men who stand in the country's 
history for Discovery, Independence, Union, and Expansion, 
and that of Roosevelt, for the present President, while the 
groups of portraits bring together faces and names that may 
well be indelibly stamped on the child's mind as leaders in 
important crises. 

One departure will be found in the insertion in the body 
of the book of the full text of the Declaration of Independ- 
ence and of the Constitution of the United States, which are 
usually placed in the Appendix of our school histories, where 
the temptation on the part of both teacher and pupil is to 
neglect them altogether. The writer believes thoroughly 
that the time when the Declaration of Independence or the 
Constitution should be read is at the moment when the 
pupil's enthusiasm is aroused therein. The teacher should 
understand that they are not inserted in the body of the 



PREFACE 111 

book for purposes of detailed study. However, they should 
be read, and all salient points emphasized sufficiently to 
cause the pupils to realize the importance of these two great 
national documents. 

The book is numbered by sections throughout for teach- 
ing purposes, and has been written with the teacher and the 
needs of the pupil constantly in mind. It is believed that 
one of its strong features rests in the fact that it will reduce 
itself readily and easily to teaching processes. Nothing 
which would detract the attention of the pupil from the 
thread of the story, either in the form of notes or references 
appear. It is felt that the book is constructed on a logical 
and sound pedagogical plan. An effort has been made to make 
the history one connected story, from the first section to the 
last section in the book. A few valuable tables appear at 
the close. 

W. M. Davidson. 

ToPEKA, Kansas, 

Ajoril, 1002. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

FINDING A CONTINENT 

C0LUMBU8, U92-1504. 
SEC. PAGE 

1. Discovery of the New Woi-Id la 

2. Principal Causes Leading to tlie Discovery 14 

3. Other Causes Leading to the Discovery 15 

4. Conditions in Europe 15 

5. The Portuguese and the Route to India IG 

6. Christopher Columbus 17 

7. First Voyage of Columbus 18 

8. Effects of the Discovery 19 

9. Later Voyages of Columbus 19 

10. The Norsemen in America — 1000, A. D 20 

CHAPTER. II 

THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 
SPANISH, 11,92-1582. 
PORTUGUESE, 1500-1502. 
FRENCH, 1521,-1687. 
DUTCH, 1609-1613. 
ENGLISH, If, 97- 1607. 

11. The Line of Demarcation 22 

THE SPANISH. 

12. Impelling Motives 2.3 

13. Ponce de Leon Discovered Florida — 1513 24 

14. Balboa and the Pacific Ocean — 1513 25 

15. Cortez Conquers the Aztecs — 1519-1521 20 

16. Magellan Discovers Straits of Magellan — 1520 : I'liilippine Is- 

lands — 1521 : His Ship Victoria Completes Circuit of Globe — 
1522 27 

17. De Ayllon and San Miguel— 1526 27 

18. Narvaez Meets with Disaster— 1528 28 

19. Coronado and the "Seven Fabled Cities of Cibola" ; the Quivera — 

1540-1542 29 

20. De Soto and the Mississippi River — 1539-1542 30 

21. Cabrillo and California— 1542-1543 31 

22. Menendez Founds St. Augustine, 1505; Espejo, Santa Fe, 1582. 31 

THE PORTUGUESE. 

23. Americus Vespucius and Naming of America — 1497-1504 32 

24. Cabral Discovers Brazil— 1500 32 

25. Cortereal Visits and Names Labrador — 1500 33 

V 



VI HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 



SEC THE FKEXCII. PAGE 

26. The French Fishermen 33 

27. Verrazano and New France — 1524 34 

28. Cartier Discovers the St. Lawrence — 1535 34 

29. The Huguenots Attempt to Found a Colony in Florida 35 

30. Champlain, the Father of New France 37 

31. De Monts and His Agricultural Colony in Canada 37 

32. The Pioneers of France in the New World, — Soldiers. Fur Trad- 

ers, and the Jesuit Fathers 38 

33. La Salle and the Extension of New France 39 

THE DUTCH. 

34. Holland and the New Netherlands in America 40 

THE ENGLISH. 

35. England at the Time of the Discovery 40 

36. The Cabots Establish the Claim of England — 1497-1498 41 

37. England under Queen Elizabeth 41 

38. Frobisher Enters Baffin's Bay in Search of a Northwest I'assage. 42 

39. Drake, the Bold Rover, Circumnavigates the Globe — 1577-1580. 42 

40. Sir Humphrey Gilbert Makes an Attempt to Found an English 

Colony 43 

41. Sir Walter Raleigh and Virginia 43 

42. Gosnold — 1602 ; I'ring— 1603 ; Wej^mouth— 1605 44 

43. The Virginia Company — Plymouth: London — (1606) 45 

ST'MMARY. 

44. Progress Made 46 

45. Conflicting Claims 47 

CHAPTER HI 

THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 
1^-1902. 

46. North America — Physical I^atures of 49 

47. The United States 49 

The Atlantic Plain 49 

The Pacific Slope 51 

The Central Plain 51 

48. The Indian and His Treatment by Ilis Conquerors 52 

49. The Whole Continent Peopled by the Natives 54 

50. Distribution in the United States in 1492 54 

51. The Tribe of the Alleghans : The Mound Builders 56 

52. The Red Man 57 

53. Where is the Indian Now? 00 

54. Present Government Policy : Allotment Act : The Indian's Future 62 

CHAPTER IV 

THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS. 

1601-1132. 

55. England 63 

56. The Reign of the Stuarts— 1603-1714 63 

57. The First English Settlement in America 64 



CONTENTS Vii 

S*0. VIHUIXIA. , PAGE 

58. Jamestown g5 

59. The First Charter (j,-, 

60. Character of the Colonists (j-, 

Gl. Captain John Smith qq 

62. The Light Almost Out — Lord Delaware Rekindles It G7 

63. The Second and Third Charters (37 

64. Communism a Failure g7 

65. Tobacco and Its Influence ..^n the Life of the Colonists 68 

66. Indentured Servants and the Development of the "I'oor Whites". 61) 

67. A Cloud — Introduction of African Slavery 69 

68. Beginnings of the Republic 69 

69. Indian Massacres of 1622 and 1644 70 

70. The Charter Revoked 71 

71. Two Types — Berkeley and Bacon 72 

72. Sir William Berkeley 72 

73. Nathaniel Bacon 73 

MASSACHUSETTS THE TLYMOUTH COLONY. 

Plymouth, 1620. 

74. The Plymouth Company 74 

75. Religious Awakening of the Sixteenth Century 74 

76. What is a Puritan? a Separatist? a Pilgrim 74 

77. The Pilgrims 75 

78. The Voyage and the Compact — the Mayflower 75 

79. Hardships Endured 70 

80. The Indians and Miles Standish 70 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLOXY. 

Salem, 1628. 

81. The Puritans at Salem and Boston 77 

82. Church and State 78 

83. The Growth of Democracy — The Town Meeting 78 

84. Religious Differences : Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson and the 

Quakers 79 

85. Salem Witchcraft 80 

86. Andros 80 

NEW HAMTSHIRE AND MAINE. 

87. Gorges and Mason 81 

CONNECTICUT. 

SayhrooJce, 16S5. 

88. The New England Pilgrims and the Dutch Forts 82 

89. The Written Constitution 83 

90. Pequot War 83 

91. The United Colonies of New England — 1643 84 

92. King Philip's War and the Checking of Missionary Work among 

the Indians 85 

93. The Connecticut Charter 86 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Providence, 1636. 

94. Providence Founded — 1636 87 

95. Anne Hutchinson's Settlements, Portsmouth and Newport 87 



VlU HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

SEC. PAGE 

9G. Roger Williams Secures a Charter — 1644 87 

97. Liberal Ideas as to Religion 88 

98. Separation of Church and State 88 

NEW YORK. 

99. New Amsterdam and the Dutch Traders 88 

100. The Grant to the Duke of York 89 

101. Indian Policy of the Dutch 90 

102. Jacob Leisler 90 

103. The Patroon System 91 

104. Education and Religion 92 

NEW JERSEY. 

EUzabcthtown, 1665. 

105. Berkeley and Carteret — East and West Jersey 92 

IOC. Title Troubles '.>2 

107. New Jersey 03 

PENXSYLVAXIA. 

Philadelphia, 1682. 

108. The Quakers 03 

109. William I'enn and His "Holy Experiment" 94 

110. Philadelphia Founded 05 

111. Penn's Indian I'olicy 06 

112. Boundary Lines 06 

113. Charter and Government 07 

DELAWARE. 

Wilmington, 1638. 

114. The Three Lower Counties 07 

MARYLAND. 

St. Mary's, 163.',. 

115. Lord Baltimore and His Liberal Grant 98 

116. Settlement — Claiborne's Opposition 08 

117. Religious Troubles— Toleration Acts 09 

THE CAROLINAS. 

Albemarle, 1653, and Charleston , J670. 

118. Carolina Grant 09 

119. Albemarle Colony — "Poor Whites" 100 

120. The Carteret Colony— Charleston 100 

121. Separation 101 

122. Indian Troubles 102 

GEORGIA. 

Savannah, 1733. 

123. Oglethorpe and His Wards 102 

124. Spaniards and Indians 103 

125. The Wesleys .103 

126. The Colony a Disappointment 103 



CONTENTS IX 

CHAPTER V 
THE BATTLE FOR SUI'KEMACY 

THE FOUR INTERCOLONIAL WARS. 

King WilUam's, 1689-1697. 
Queen Anne's, 1702-1713. 
King George's, 17U-17Jj8. 
French and Indian, J75Ji-nG3. 

SEC. PAGE 

127. The French and English in America 104 

128. Indian Tolicies Contrasted 105 

KING WILLIAIM'S WAR. 

129. Cause — Parties Engaged lOG 

130. Port Royal Expedition lOG 

131. Frontenac and Indian Atrocities 106 

132. Peace : Results 107 

QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. 

133. Cause — Parties Engaged 107 

134. The War in the North 107 

135. The War in the South 108 

136. Indian Atrocities 108 

137. Peace : Results 108 

KING GEORGE'S WAR. 

138. French Fortification 108 

139. War Declared 109 

140. Treaty 109 

THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 

1 41 . Parties and Causes HO 

142. Washington in Virginia's Service Ill 

143. The Albany Convention 112 

144; Proposed Outline of Attack 112 

145. Defeat of Braddocl< 112 

146. The Acadians 114 

147. Louisburg 114 

148. Pitt and English Success 114 

149. Contest for Supremacy in the Lake Country 115 

150. The Taking of Quebec— Wolfe — Montcalm 115 

151. The Passing of the French from America 117 

152. England and the Result , . , ii8 

153. The Colonies and the Result 110 

154. The Indian and the War 119 

155. George III. and the War 120 

156. Expansion Calls for New Government and Additional Expenses. 121 

CHAPTER VI 

THE GROWTH OF THE COLONIES 

157. Development of the Colonies 123 

POPULATION. 

158. Population in the Colonies 123 

159. Distribution of Population 124 



X HISTORY OF TWW Fl^FITEB ^ADTES 

SEC. 

160. The Cities 125 

161. People Not All English 126 

SOCIAL LIFE. 

162. Class Distinction 130 

163. Dress 130 

164. Home Comforts : Food 132 

165. Habits : Laws and Penalties 133 

166. Religion 134 

167. Amusements 135 

168. Mode of Travel 136 

OCCUPATION AND MONEY. 

169. Occupation 137 

170. Money 139 

EDUCATION. 

171. In New England 139 

172. In the Middle Colonies 140 

173. In the Southern Colonies 141 

174. The Colleges 141 

BOOKS AND LITERATURE. 

175. Books, Newspapers, and Pamphlets 148 

1 76. Literature 145 

177. Benjamin Franklin 146 

178. Libraries 147 

SLAVERY AND INDENTED SERVICE. 

179. Slavery in the Colonies 147 

180. Sentiment against Slavery 148 

181. Number of Slaves 148 

182. Slave Laws 149 

183. Indented Servants 150 

184. The Trade in Indented Servants 151 

POLITICAL LIFE. 

185. The Government of the Colonies 151 

186. Colonial Governors and Lords of Trade 152 

187. Parliament and the Colonies 153 

188. The Postoffice 153 

189. Political Parties in the Colonies 154 

190. The Colonists and Their Leaders 155 

CHAPTER VII 

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 

1763-1783. 

191. Colonial Policy of England 157 

192. Conditions in England 157 

193. Conditions in the Colonies : Growth of Democracy 158 

194. The Principle of Taxation as Used by England 159 

195. Navigation Acts : Intercolonial Wars 159 

196. Writs of Assistance 160 

197. Stamp Act — 1765 : Protests 161 

198. The Stamp-Act Congress — 1765 161 

199. Organized Resistance: Repeal of the Act: Declaratory Act.... 162 



CONTESTS XI 

SEC. PAGE 

200. Sparks of Liberty 163 

201. The Townshend Acts — 1767 163 

202. "Letters of a Pennsylvania Farmer" — 1768 164 

203. The Sloop Liberty — 1768 : The Boston Massacre — March 5, 

1770 : The Revenue Cutter Gaspee — 1772 164 

204. Cheap Tea, and the Boston Tea Party — Dec. 16, 1773 166 

205. The Boston Port Bill and the "Intolerable Acts" — March and 

June, 1774 168 

206. Effect of the Bill and the Action of the Other Colonies 160 

207. First Colonial Congress — Sept. 5 to Oct. 26, 1774 169 

EVENTS OF 1775. 

208. Battle of Lexington — April 19, 1775 : "The Shot Heard Round 

the World • 171 

209. Gathering of the Hosts 173 

210. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold at Ticonderoga — May 10: 

Seth Warner at Crown Point — May 10 173 

211. Second Continental Congress — May 10 174 

212. Washington Appointed Commander-in-Chief — June 17 174 

213. Bunker Hill — June 17 175 

214. Montgomery and Arnold at Quebec 176 

EVENTS OF 1776. 

215. Howe Evacuates Boston— March 17 177 

216. The British in the South: Battle of Fort Moultrie — June 28. . , 178 

217. King George Hires Hessians 179 

218. Independence Declared — July 4 179 

Declaration of Independence 181 

219. Washington at New York 185 

220. The Howes Offer Peace 185 

221. Battle of Long Island — August 27 : Loss of Now York 187 

222. Nathan Hale 187 

223. Retreat of Washington across the Delaware •. 187 

224. General Charles Lee 188 

225. The Darkest Period of the War 189 

226. Trenton— Dec. 26, 1776 : Princeton — Jan. 3, 1777 190 

EVENTS OF 1777. 

227. Lafayette, Steuben, and other Foreign Patriots 191 

228. British Plan of Attack— 1777 192 

229. Burgoyne Starts 193 

230. The Battle of Bennington — Aug. 16 193 

231. St. Leger Meets with Disaster 194 

232. The Stars and Stripes 194 

233. The Two Battles of Saratoga — Sept. 19 and Oct. 7 : Burgoyne's 

Surrender — Oct. 17 195 

234. Battle of Brandywine — Sept. 11: Philadelphia Taken 196 

235. Germantown — Oct. 4 197 

236. The Winter at Valley Forge 197 

EVENTS OF 1778. 

237. The Conway Cabal 198 

238. France Acknowledges the Independence of the United States of 

America — Feb. 6 : The French Alliance 198 

239. England Offers All but Independence 198 

240. Clinton Evacuates Philadelphia — Battle of Monmouth — June 28 198 



Xll HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

SEC. PAGE 

241. Wyoming Massacre — July 3 200 

242. Sullivan and the French Fail at Newport 201 

243. Savannah Captured : Georgia Retaken by the British 201 

EVENTS OF 1779. 

244. Paul Jones and the Navy 202 

245. Colonel Clark and His Work in the West 203 

246. Slow Progress of the War : "Mad Anthony" Wayne at Stony 

Point — July 15 204 

247. Paulus Hook — Aug. 18 205 

248. Lincoln and the French Fail at Savannah 205 

EVENTS OP 1780. 

240. The British in the South 200 

250. Charleston — May 12 207 

251. Gates in Command : Battle of Camden — Aug. 1(> 207 

252. The Yeomanry at King's Mountain — Oct. 7 208 

253. I'artisan Leaders — Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Lee 208 

254. Benedict Arnold 209 

255. Arnold at Philadelphia 209 

25G. West Point and Treason 210 

257. The Fate of Andre 210 

258. Arnold's Subsequent Career 211 

EVENTS OP 1781. 

259. Morgan Defeats Tarleton at the Cowpens — Jan. 17 211 

200. (ireene Recovers the Carolinas and Georgia 211 

201. Lafayette, "The Boy," Outgenerals Cornwallls and Saves Vir- 

ginia 212 

202. Battle of Yorktown— Oct. 19 212 

203. Yorktown, and Its Effect in America 213 

END OP THE STRUGGLE. 

204. Yorktown and Its Effect on the British 214 

205. I'arliament Overrules King George 215 

200. England Acknowledges the Independence of the United States — 

Nov. 30, 1782 215 

207. Cessation of Hostilities by Proclamation — April 10. 1783 215 

208. The Treaty of I'aris— Sept. 3, 1783 215 

209. The American Army Disbands: the British Army Withdraws.. 216 

FINANCES OF THE REVOLT'TIOX. 

270. Cost of the War 217 

271. Congress and the Army 217 

272. Continental Currency and Its Collapse — 1780 218 

273. Robert Morris, Superintendent of Finance 219 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 

274. Steps in the Development of the Constitution 221 

275. Government during the Revolution 221 

276. The States Adopt New Constitutions 221 

277. Articles of Confederation— 1781 222 

278. Weakness of the Articles 222 

279. State Pride 224 



CONTENTS xiii 

SEC. PAGE 

280. Shay's Rebellion 224 

281. Movement toward a Stronger Government 225 

282. The Annapolis Trade Convention — 1786 225 

283. The Northwest Territory 226 

284. The Ordinance of 1787 226 

285. The Constitutional Convention — 1787 227 

286. The Men Who Composed the Convention 227 

287. The Constitution, the Result of Compromise 228 

288. The Three Great Compromises 228 

289. The Constitution before the People for Adoption 229 

290. "The Federalist" 229 

291. The First Two Political Parties — Federalists and Anti-Federal- 

ists 230 

292. Amendments to the Constitution 230 

Constitution of the United States 230 

CHAPTER IX 
FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 

1789-1829. 

293. The New Government Established — 1789 245 

294. Washington Inaugurated April 30, 1789 246 

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTKATION. 

Federalist, 1780-1797. 

295. The First President 247 

296. The I*resident's Cabinet 247 

297. The Condition of the Government Finances in 1789 248 

298. Hamilton's Financial I'olicy 248 

299. The Tariff of 1789 : The Excise Tax — 1790 : Bank of the United 

States— 1791 : The United States Mint— 1792 248 

300. The Judiciary Established— 1789 249 

301. The First National Congress : The Term of a Congress 250 

302. The National Capital 250 

303. Political Parties: Federalist and Democratic-Republican 251 

304. Foreign Affairs 251 

305. The Indian Trouble in the Northwest : Wayne's Decisive Vic- 

tory — 1794 253 

306. The Whiskey Insurrection — 1794 253 

307. New States : Vermont — 1791 ; Kentucky — 1792 ; Tennessee 

l'^96 253 

308. Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin and Its Relation to Slavery — 1792. . . . 254 

309. The First Census— 1790 254 

310. Washington's Farewell Address 254 

Till. The Presidential Election of 1796 255 

ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS, 

Fedemlnt: 1797-1801 

' 312. John Adams 256 

313. Trouble with France 256 

314. The X. Y. Z. Correspondence: "Millions for Defence; Not One 

Cent for Tribute" 257 

315. War with France Averted 257 



XIV HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

BEC. PAGE 

316. The Alien and Sedition Laws — 1798 258 

317. The Virginia and Kentucliy Resolutions — 1798 259 

318. The Second Census^lSOO 259 

319. John Marshall, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court — 1801 259 

320. The Presidential Election of 1800 259 

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

Dcmocratic-RcpuMican : 1801-1809. 

321. Thomas Jefferson ' 260 

322. The Louisiana I'urchase — 1803: Territorial Expansion 261 

323. The "Territory of Orleans" and the "District of Louisiana" 262 

324. The Lewis and Clark Expedition— 1803-1806 263 

325. The Oregon Country and Astoria 264 

326. Ohio Admitted to the Union— 1803 265 

327. Duel between Hamilton and Burr — 1804 265 

328. Burr's Conspiracy in the Southwest and His Trial for Treason — - 

1807 266 

329. The Cumberland National Road — 1806 266 

330. Robert Fulton and the First Steamboat — 1807 267 

331. The Barbary States and the Tripolitan War — 1803-1805 267 

332. Trouble with Great Britain and France 268 

333. The British Orders in Council : Napoleon's Berlin and Milan De- 

crees 269 

334. The Affair of the Chesapeake and Leopard— June 22, 1807 270 

335. Jefferson's I'olicy of Nonresistance 270 

336. Nonimportation Act Goes into Effect — Dec. 14, 1807 271 

337. The Embargo Act— Dec. 22, 1807 271 

338. Nonintercourse Act— 1809 271 

339. Presidential Election of 1808 272 

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

Democratic-Republican : 1809-1817. 

340. James Madison 272 

341. Effect of the Repeal of the Embargo 273 

342. Madison's Negotiations 274 

343. The Macon Bill— May 1, 1810 274 

344. Napoleon's Double Dealing 274 

345. The Indians and the British in the Northwest : Battle of Tip- 

pecanoe 276 

346. President and Little Belt 277 

347. War Declared June 18, 1812 277 

348. Causes of the War of 1812 277 

349. The Two I'olitical I'arties and the War 278 

350. Relative Strength of the Two Nations 278 

351. Madison's Conduct of the War 278 

352. Events of 1812 278 

353. Events of 1813 279 

354. Events of 1814 283 

355. Treaty of Ghent — 1814 285 

356. The Hartford Convention and the Federalist I'arty — Dec. 15, 

1814 285 

357. Results of the War 285 

358. The Second Bank of the United States— 1816 286 



CONTENTS XV 

SEC. PAGE 

359. Tariff of 1816 : The "Protective Tariff" 286 

360. Decatur and the Algerine War — 1815 287 

361. New States : Louisiana — 1812 ; Indiana 1816 287 

362. The Third Census— 1810 " ' ' 287 

363. The Presidential Election of 1816 287 

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

Democratic-Repuhlican : 1817-1825. 

364. James Monroe 288 

365. The Seminole War, and the Purchase of Florida 288 

366. New States Admitted: Mississippi — 1817; Illinois — 1818; Ala- 

bama — 1819 ; Maine — 1820 ; Missouri — 1821 289 

367. The Missouri Compromise — 1820 290 

368. The Monroe Doctrine— 1823 291 

369. The Tariff of 1824 : Internal Improvements 291 

370. The Fourth Census — 1820 292 

371. The Presidential Election of 1824 292 

ADMINISTRATION OP JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 

National-RepuhUcan : 1825-1829. 

372. John Quincy Adams 293 

373. Visit of Lafayette 294 

374. Death of Adams and Jefferson July 4, 1820 295 

375. The Erie Canal — 1825 295 

376. Steamboats 296 

377. Railroads 296 

378. The Tariff of 1828, "The Tariff of Abominations" 297 

379. The Presidential Election of 1828 297 

CHAPTER X 

GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 

1789-1829. 

380. Development of Territory 299 

POPULATION. 

381. Numbers 299 

382. Growth of Cities 301 

SOCIAL LIFE. 

383. Manner of Living 301 

384. Religion 302 

385. Mode of Travel 303 

EDUCATION. 

386. Public Schools and Colleges 304 

387. Literature 305 

OCCUPATIONS. 

388. Agriculture, Fishing, and Commerce 305 

389. Growth of Manufactures 305 

NATIONAL DEFENCE. 

390. Army and Navy 306 

POLITICAL LIFE. 

391. Growth of Popular Government 307 



XVI HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

CHAPTER XI 

FROM JACKSON TO LIN'COLN 

1820-1861. 

JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

fcEC. Democratic: 1829-1S37. PAGE 

.*]92. Andrew Jackson noo 

ans. Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet" .",10 

?,n4. Ttie Spoils System : "Rotation in Office" 310 

305. The Overthrow of the United States Bank 311 

396. Effect of the Rank's Overthrow 312 

307. Speculation 312 

308. Distribution of the Surplus 313 

300. The Specie Circular 313 

400. The Webster and Hayne Debate — February. 1830 314 

401. The Tariff of 1832 : The Nullification Act Fassed by South Caro- 

lina : Compromise Tariff of 1833 314 

402. National Nominating Conventions 315 

403. Origin of the Whig Farty in 1834 315 

404. The Black Hawk and Florida Wars 316 

405. New States Admitted: Arkansas— 1830 : Michigan— 1837 317 

400. The Fifth Census— 1830 317 

407. The Fresidential Election of 1836 317 

VAN BT'REX'S ADMIXISTKATIoN. 

Dcinocraflc: /.S.?7-/.SV,/. 

408. Martin Van Buren 317 

400. The Financial Fanic of 1837 318 

410. The Sub-Treasury— 1840 310 

411. The Si.xth Census— 1840 310 

412. The Fresidential Election of 184(» 320 

TIAIJRISON AND TYLKR'S ADM I X I STRATloX. 

Whif/: 181,1-18.',-,. 

413. William Henry Harrison 321 

414. John Tyler ' 322 

415. The United States Bank and the Quarrel between Tyler and 

Congress 322 

416. The Tariff of 1842 323 

417. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty : The Northeastern Boundary — 

1842 324 

418. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Lsland— 1843 324 

419. The Fatroon War : Antirent Difficulties— 1844 325 

420. The Mormons 325 

421. Bunker Hill Monument— 1842 326 

422. The "(Jag Rule" and the Right of Fetition 327 

423. Abolition 328 

424. The Republic of Texas, a Disturbing Element in National l*oli- 

tics 329 

425. Annexation of Texas — 1845 330 

426. New States Admitted into the Union: Texas— 1845; Florida — 

1845 331 



CONTENTS Xvii 

•^EC. PAGE 

4l.'7. Samuel F. B. Morso and the Teh'graph - 1 844 :\:\i 

428. The I'residcutial Election in 1S44 •>32 

polk's admim.stkatiu.n. 
Democratic: i8//5-/8-J». 

429. James K. Polk 333 

430. Dispute over the Boundary of Texas 334 

431. Taylor's Army of Occupation ;>35 

432. Declaration of War — May 11. 1840 336 

433. Opposition to tlie War 336 

434. IMan of the War 338 

43."'». Taylor's Campaign South of the Rio Grande — September, 1840, 

to February, 1847 333 

43G. Kearney's Campaign and the Conquest of New Mexico and Cali- 
fornia — June, 1846, to January, 1847 340 

437. General Scott's Campaign and the lOnd of the War — March to 

September, 1847 34j^ 

438. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo — Feb. 2, 1848 342 

430. The Northwestern Boundary Established — 1846 342 

440. The Tariff of 1846 : The Walker Tariff 343 

441. The Wilmot Proviso — 1846 343 

442. Discovery of Gold in California : The "Forty-niners" 344 

443. New States Admitted : Iowa — 1846 ; Wisconsin — 1848 ; Oregon 

Territory Organized — 1848 34O 

444. The Tresidential Election of 1848 340 

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

Whig: m.',9-I853. 

44;"). Zachary Taylor 347 

446. Millard Fillmore 348 

447. The Newly Acquired Territory and President Taylor-'s Policy... 340 

448. Clay's Plan : The Compromise of 18r»0 350 

440. The Debate in Congress Over the Compromise 3.^)1 

450. The Fugitive Slave Law 3,52 

451. The Underground Railroad 352 

452. Minor P]vents 353 

453. Death of Webster, Clay, and Calhoun 354 

454. The Seventh Census — 1850 355 

455. The Presidential Election of 1852 356 

PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

Democratic: 1853-1857. 

456. Franklin Pierce , 356 

457. The Gadsden Purchase — 1853 357 

458. The Martin Koszta Affair— 1854 358 

450. Commodore Perry's Expedition to Japan — 1852-1854 358 

460. The Ostend Manifesto— 1854 350 

461. Other Filibustering Schemes : The Walker Expeditions— 1853-54 360 

462. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill : "Squatter Sovereignty"— 1854 361 

463. The Struggle for Kansas 362 

464. The Assault Upon Sumner by Brooks 365 

465. New Political Parties : Republican and Know-Nothing 366 

466. The Presidential Election of 1856 368 



XVm HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION, 

SEC. Democratic: 1857-1861. page 

4G7. James Buchanan 368 

4G8. The Dred Scott Decision and the Repeal of the Missouri Com- 
promise 369 

469. The Kansas Struggle Ends in Victory for Freedom 371 

470. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 373 

471. John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry — 1859 374 

472. Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and Helper's "Impending 

Crisis" 376 

473. The Presidential Election of 1860 377 

474. Secession 379 

475. Buchanan's Policy 380 

476. Last Efforts at Compromise — The Peace Convention 381 

477. Government Property Seized : Star of the West Fired Upon 382 

478. New States : The Census : Relative Strength of North and South. 382 

CHAPTER XII 

GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 

1830-1860. 

479. The Close of an Era 385 

480. Territorial Growth 385 

I'OITLATION. 

481. Growth in Numbers = 385 

482. Distribution 386 

483. Cities 388 

KDUCATION. 

484. Schools and Colleges 389 

485. Newspapers and Mails 389 

486. Literature 389 

TUANSl'dliTATKiN. 

487. The Era of Canals 390 

488. The Increase of Railroads 391 

NATIONAL UNION AND DISUNION. 

489. National Feeling 392 

490. Sectional Feeling 392 

INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERY. 

491. Inventive (Jenius 393 

CHAPTER XIII 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 
RcpublUaii: 18Gt-186r,. 

492. Abraham Lincoln 395 

493. Lincoln's Policy 397 

THE YEAR 1861. 

494. The First Blow Struck : The Fall of Fort Sumter— April 14, 1861 398 

495. The Effect on the North and South of Sumter's Fall 399 

496. Davis" Reprisals and Lincoln's Blockade 400 

497. The Border States 400 



CONTENTS XIX 

SBC. PAGE 

498. George B. McClellan and the Campaign in West Virginia 401 

499. Missouri Saved to the Union 402 

500. Lincoln Calls for More Troops — May 3 402 

501. Washington Threatened , 403 

502. Battle of Bull Run— July 21 404 

503. The Effect of the Battle of Bull Run 405 

504. McClellan Succeeds Scott 406 

505. Naval Operations 406 

506. Foreign Relations 407 

507. The Trent Affair 407 

508. Situation at the Close of the Year 408 

Important Battles of 1861 408 

THE YEAR 1862. 

509. Plan of Operations for 1862 ^ 409 

IN THE WEST. 

Missouri Held and Arkansas livcluiincd. 

510. Battle of Pea Ridge — March 7-8 409 

Down the Mississippi Valley with Orant. 

511. The Union Victories at Fort Henry — February 6, and Fort Don- 

elson — February 16 409 

512. Effect of These Victories 411 

513. Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing — April 6-7 411 

514. Capture of New Madrid — March 14, and Island Number Ten — 

April 8 : Opening of the Upper Mississippi 412 

515. Capture of Corinth — May 30 412 

516. Effects of Shiloh and Island Number Ten 412 

At the Mouth of the Mississippi River with Farrofjut. 

517. The Opening of the Lower Mississippi : Capture of New Orleans 

— April 18 to May 1 413 

IN THE CENTER. 

1)1 Kentucky and Tennessee with Buell and Roseerans. 
318. Bragg Invades Kentucky 414 

519. Battle of Murfreesboro — December 31 to January 2 414 

IN THE EAST. 

The Alarm at Hampton Roads — The Monitor and the Merrimac. 

520. The Confederate Ironclad Merrimac Threatens to Raise the 

Blockade — March 8 415 

521. The Battle Between the Ironclads — March 9 415 

On to Richmond. 

522. McCIellan's Peninsular Campaign 416 

523. Yorktown Taken — April 4 : Battle of Williamsburg — May 5-6 417 

524. Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines — May 31 and June 1 417 

525. Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley : Washington 

Threatened 418 

t526. The "Seven Days' Fight" Before Richmond — June 26 to July 1.. 418 

527. The Effect of McCIellan's P'ailure to Capture Richmond 419 

Pope's Army of Virginia Meets with Disaster. 

528. The Army of Virginia Created 420 

529. Pope's Campaign and the "Second Bull Run" 420 



XX HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

SEC. Lee Crosses the Potomac — Alarm at the North. page 

530. Invasion of Maryland 421 

531. Battle of Antietam — September 17 421 

Burn§i(le at Fredericksburg. 

532. Battle of Fredericksburg — December 13 422 

THE WAR NOW FOR THE UNION AND AGAINST SLAVERY. 

533. Lincoln I'roclaims Freedom to the Slaves — September 22. 1802, 

and January 1, 1863 423 

THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR. 

534. The Situation 423 

Important Battles of 1862 424 

THE YEAR 1803. 

535. I'lan of Operations 425 

IN THE WEST. 

Or ant and Vicksburg. 

536. Campaign Against Vicksburg 425 

537. Effect of the Fall of Vicksburg 427 

IN THE CENTER. 

With Rosecrans, Thomas, and Grant. 

538. Rosecrans Enters Chattanooga 427 

530. Battle of Chickamauga — September 19-20 427 

540. After the Battle of Chickamauga 42;» 

541. Grant Assumes Command 429 

542. Battle of Lookout Mountain — November 24 4:!0 

543. Battle of Missionary Ridge — November 25 4:;() 

544. Burnside at Knoxville 431 

IN THE EAST. 

The Ironclads Fail at Charleston. 

545. Battle of Charleston Harbor — April 7 431 

Hooker and Chancellors ville. 
540. Battle of Chancellorsville — May 2-3 432 

547. Effect of Chancellorsville 432 

On to Washington. 

548. Lee's Second Invasion of the North 433 

549. Meade Succeeds Hooker in Command 433 

Octtysburg. 

550. The First Day's Battle of Gettysburg— July 1 434 

551. The Second Day's Battle — July 2 435 

552. The Third Day's Battle — July 3 435 

553. Situation at the Close of the Year 1803 430 

Important Battles of 1803 437 

THE YEAR 1804. 

554. Plan of Operations for 1804 437 

IN THE CENTER. 

With Sherman to the Sea. 

555. Sherman's Campaign Against Atlanta — May 5 to September 2 . . . 437 

550. Sherman Enters Atlanta — September 2 438 

557. Hood Turns Northward — Battle of Nashville— December 15-10.. 439 
058. From Atlanta to the Sea — November 15 to December 22 440 



CONTENTS Xxi 

SEC. PAGE 

With Farragut at Mobile Bay. 

559. Farragut Enters Mobile Bay — August 5 441 

The Alabama. 

560. England and the Confederate Cruisers 441 

561. The Kearsarge and the Alabama 442 

IN THE EAST. 

From the Rapidan to the James. 

562. Grant's Plan 442 

56.3. Battle of the Wilderness — May 5-6 443 

564. The Battle of Spottsylvania Courthouse — May l)-12 44.3 

565. North Anna — May 23-25 : Cold Harbor — June 3 444 

566. Change of Base from the York to the James River 444 

567. The Race for Petersburg 445 

In the Shenandoah Valley with Sheridan. 

568. Early's Raids 445 

561). The Battle of Winchester— October 19 446 

THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR. 

570. The Situation 447 

Important Battles of 1864 447 

THE year 1865. 
the end of the war. 

571. Plan of Operations for 1865 448 

NORTH AND SOUTH. 

572. Condition of the Confederacy 448 

573. Condition of the Union 449 

574. Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address 449 

SHERMAN'S LAST CAMPAIGN. 

575. Sherman Marches North 450 

576. Johnston's Army Repulsed 450 

GRANT'S LAST CAMPAIGN. 

577. Fort Steadman and Five Forks 451 

578. Petersburg and Richmond Fall 451 

579. Lee Surrenders at Appomattox — April 9 452 

Important Battles of 1865 453 

assassination of lincoln. 

580. After Appomattox 453 

581. Death of Lincoln 454 

582. After Lincoln's Death 454 

THE COST OF THE WAR. 

583. In Men and in Treasure 455 

584. The Finances of the War 455 

PROGRESS DURING THE WAR. 

585. Improvements in Arms 456 

586. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions 450 

587. Growth : New States -457 

THE UNION ARMY DISBANDS. 

588. The Grand Review at Washington 458 

THE GRAND ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC. 

589. The Grand Army 459 

ASSOCIATED ORGANIZATIONS. 

590. The First Organization of Women 459 



xxii HISTORY OF THE UI^ITED STATES 



CHAPTER XIV 

FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES— RECONSTRUCTION 

1865-1877. 
JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

SEC. Republican: 1865-1869. page 

591. Andrew Johnson 461 

592. The Problems 462 

593. Thirteenth Amendment 462 

394. Beginning of Reconstruction 46:{ 

595. Johnson's Policy 463 

596. Legislation Against the Freedmen 464 

597. The Congressional Theory 464 

598. The Freedmen's Bureau 465 

599. The Fourteenth Amendment 465 

600. The Congressional Election of 1866 466 

601. Congress Limits Johnson's Powers 466 

602. The Completed Reconstruction Measures 467 

603. Reconstruction Carried Out 467 

604. Military Rule in the South 468 

605. The New Governments 468 

606. The Impeachment of President Johnson 469 

607. The State of Nebraska 469 

608. Mexico and the Monroe Doctrine 469 

609. The Purchase of Alaska 470 

610. Election of 1868 . . . *. 470 

grant's ADMINISTRATION. 

Republican: 1869-1877. 

611. Ulysses S. Grant 470 

612. The Union Pacific Railroad 471 

613. The Fifteenth Amendment 471 

614. The Ku-Klux Klan 472 

615. Force Bills 472 

616. Reconstruction Completed 472 

617. Military Authority Continued in the South 473 

618. The Treaty of Washington 473 

619. The Alabama Claims : The Geneva Award 473 

620. Cuba : The Virginius— 1873 474 

621. The Campaign of 1872 475 

622. The First Civil Service Reform Bill 475 

623. Demonetization of Silver— 1873 : Inflation Bill— 1874 : Resump- 

tion Act— 1875 476 

624. Trouble with the Sioux : Custer's Massacre — 1876 476 

625. Amnesty Bill — 1872 : Withdrawal of Troops from the South— 

1874 to 1877 477 

626. The Credit Mobilier and Other Scandals: The Whiskey Ring... 478 

627. The Ninth Census— 1870 479 

628. Campaign of 1876 479 

629. The Electoral Commission 479 



CON^TENTS xxiii 

CHAPTER XV 

FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT— EXPANSION 

1877. 
HAYES' ADMINISTRATION. 

SEC. Republican: 1877-1881. page 

630. Rutherford Birchard Hayes 48]^ 

6.31. The New Nation ^gj 

632. The President's Position ' 482 

633. Conciliation of the South : Hayes' Southern I'olicy 482 

634. Civil Service Reform f ' ' ' [ 433 

635. Resumption of Specie I'ayment — 1S70 483 

636. The Silver Question : The Bland-Allison Bill— 1S7S 484 

637. Colorado Admitted — 1876 : The Tenth Census — 1880 48."; 

638. The Presidential Election of 1880 485 

GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 

Republican: 1881-1885. 

639. James Abram Garfield 48G 

640. The Blaine and Conkling Political Quarrel 486 

641. Assassination of Garfield 487 

642. Chester Alan Arthur 487 

643. The Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883 487 

644. The Australian Ballot 488 

645. Acts Against Immigration 488 

646. The Presidential Campaign of 1884 489 

CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION. 

Democratic: 1885-1889. 

647. Grover Cleveland 489 

648. The Return of the Democrats to Power 490 

649. Cleveland and the Spoils System 490 

650. Private Pension Bills 490 

651. Presidential Succession Bill — 1886 491 

652. The Interstate Commerce Act 491 

653. Fishery Questions 492 

654. The Tariff 493 

655. Campaign of 1888 493 

HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

Republican: 1889-1S93. 

656. Benjamin Harrison 493 

657. The McKinley Tariff 494 

658. Reciprocity and South America 494 

659. Samoa and the Sandwich Islands 494 

660. Campaign of 1892 495 

CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 

Democratic: 1893-1897. 

661. The Panic of 1893 : Sherman Act Repealed 495 

662. The Wilson Bill — 1894 : The Income Tax 496 

663. Cleveland and the Monroe Doctrine 496 

664. New States ' 497 

665. Oklahoma 497 

666. The Presidential Campaign of 1896 498 



XXIV HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES 

SBC. MCKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION. PAGE 

t)G7. William McKinley 498 

668. The Dingley Tariff : The Gold Law 498 

669. Cuban Affairs 498 

670. The Maine Disaster — February 15. 1898 499 

671. The American Ultimatum 499 

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 

672. War Declared 499 

673. The Naval Warfare 500 

674. The Land Campaigns. .• 500 

675. reacp 501 

676. Results of the War 501 

EVENTS SINCE THE WAR. 

677. The Hawaiian Islands Annexed — 1898 502 

678. The New Policy 502 

679. War in the Philippines 502 

680. China, and the "Open Door" 503 

681. Cuba 503 

682. The Interoceanic Canal 504 

683. Election of 1900 505 

684. Assassination of President McKinley 505 

685. Theodore Roosevelt 505 

CHAPTER XVI 

GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 

686. Growth in Nationality 507 

I'OITLATION. 

687. Numbers 507 

688. Growth of Cities 508 

689. Growth of Territory 509 

690. Public Lands 510 

EDUCATION. 

691. The Public Schools 510 

6!)2. The Colleges 511 

693. National Expositions 512 

694. The Newspapers 512 

TRANSl'OUTATION. 

695. Decay of Canals 513 

696. Increase of Railroads 513 

CROWTH OF INDUSTRIES. 

697. Invention 514 

698. Manufactures 515 

699. Agriculture • • • 515 

POLITICAL PARTIES SINCHI THE CIVIL WAK. 

700. Political Parties from 1868 to 1880 516 

701. Political I'arties from 1880 to 1892 517 

702. Political I'arties from 1892 to 1900 517 

703. Contest of 1900 518 

NATIONAL FEELING. 

704. The New Unionism 519 

705. The New American Era 520 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Christopher Columbus Fachifj 18 

Discoverers axd Explorers : Magellan. Balboa. Vespucius. Cabot. . . 

FaciiKj 41 

Indian Squaw 53 

Earthen Jars or Bowls 57 

Birch Bark Vessels 58 

Flint-Tipped Arrows 58 

Indian Tepees 59 

Indian \yar Clubs 60 

Virginia Mansion 70 

Colonial Leaders : William I'enn, Jonathan Edwards, John Win- 

throp, Roger Williams Faciiuj 87 

Dutch Houses 90 

Dutch Man 91 

Dutch Maiden 91 

Quakers 93 

Metal Plate Sunk by the French in the Ohio River 110 

Dutch Pamphlet of William Penn 128 

Faneuil Hall 129 

Washington Coat of Arms 130 

Costume of Cavalier 131 

Costume of Puritan 131 

New England Kitchen 132 

Washington's Bed 133 

Pillory and Stocks 134 

Stage Coach 136 

Inn 137 

Spinning Wheel 138 

Pine Tree Shilling 139 

An Early Schoolhouse 140 

Harvard College 142 

Heading of Early Newspaper 144 

Post-Rider 154 

Washington's Farewell to His Mother Fucing 174 ' 

Old South Church. Boston 167 

A British Soldier 172 

An American Soldier 172 

Independence Hall 180 

Revolutionary Leaders : Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Jefferson. 

Robert Morris, John Adams Facing 185 ' 

Ships of the Period 202 

Continental Currency 218 

First Money Coined in the United States 220 

Makers axd Interpreters of the Constitution : John Marshall, 

Daniel Webster, James Madison. Alexander Hamilton Facing 221 

9 



10 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Federal Hall 246 

Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin 254 

Monticello 261 

The First Steamboat 267 

An Early Railroad Train 297 

National and State Rights Leaders : Andrew Jackson, John C. 

Calhoun. Stephen A. Douglas, Henry Clay Facing 315:^ 

Bunker Hill Monument 326 

Abraham Lincoln and His Son "Tad" Facing 395 '' 

Union Commanders : William T. Sherman. David G. Farragut, 

Ulysses S. Grant, Philip Sheridan Facing 409 - 

Confederate Leaders : Robert F.. Lee, Jefferson Davis. Joseph E. 

Johnston, Thomas J. Jackson Facing 417 ^ 

Reconstructionists : Andrew Johnson, Charles Sumner, Thaddeus 

Stevens, William H. Seward Facing 464 ^ 

William McKinley Facing 498 ^ 

Theodore Roosevelt Facing 505 ,^ 



LIST OF MAPS 

PAGE 

United States Possessions, l'.)l)2 . . . , Fioniispicce 

First Voyage of Columbus 18 

The Norsemen in America 21 

Line of Demarcation 22 

The Spanish Claims 24 

The French Claims 34 

The English Claims 40 

Plymouth and London Grants 45 

Distribution of Indian Tribes Faring 49 

Structural Map of North America 50 

Jamestown and Vicinity G5 

Virginia Coast G8 

New England Coast 78 

New York and Vicinity 89 

Middle Colonies 95 

Southern Atlantic Coast 101 

Beginning of the Battle for Supremacy 104 

Acadia lOG 

Chain of French Forts 109 

French and Indian War 113 

Quebec 116 

America at the Close of the French and Indian War 118 

Boston and Vicinity 171 

Charlestown Peninsula Showing Bunker Hill 175 

Boston Harbor 178 

Campaign of 177G 180 

Burgoyne's Invasion 193 

I'hiladelphia and Vicinity 19G 

Wyoming Valley 200 

Campaign in the West 203 

Map of Southern Campaign 206 

Yorktown and Vicinity 213 

The Original Thirteen States Facing 245 ^ 

Route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition 263 

Oregon Country 264 

The Cumberland National Road 266 

Events of 1812 279 

Events of 1813 280 

Events of 1814, South 282 

Events of 1814, North 282 

Campaign Around Washington, 1814 284 

The Erie Canal 295 

Republic of Texas 330 

Disputed Mexican Boundary 334 

The Advance Toward Mexico 341 

11 



12 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Trails to California 345 

Kansas • oiio 

Harper's Ferry and Vicinity 375 

Slavery and Secession Fuciiuj 380 K 

Charleston Bay 399 

Missouri Military Movements 402 

Washington and Vicinity 403 

Bull Run and Manassas 405 

Down the Mississippi 410 

Hampton Roads 415 

Peninsular Campaign 417 

First Invasion of the North 421 

Reference Map of the War Fachifi 398 

Vicksburg Campaign 42G 

Chickamauga and Lookout Mountain 428 

Gettysburg and Vicinity 434 

Chattanooga to Atlanta 438 

Atlanta to Nashville 439 

The Wilderness District 444 

Sherman's March North 451 

Last Battles 451 

Continental Expansion 481 

Principal Railroads of the T'nitPd States Fachuj 513 - 




CHKISTOPHER COLtTMBtJS 

AFTEJR ST. GAUDBNS' STATCEJ 



CHAPTEE I 
FINDING A CONTINENT 

COLUMBUS, 1492-1504 

1. Dis<j0very of the New World.— At sunset on the 
evening*of October 11, 1492, three Spanish caravels were 
ploughing the waves of an unknown sea at a rapid rate. 
On board all was expectancy and watchfulness, made so by 
the indomitable will and the undiminished enthusiasm of 
the great navigator, who, ten weeks before, had set sail 
from Palos, Spain, in search of a western passage to the 
Golden Indies of the east. In spite of pleadings to return 
home, in spite of mutiny and continuous discontent, in 
spite of threats to cast him into the sea, he kept on his 
western course,— by his forbearance subduing his men, and 
by his courage and his hopefulness winning them to his pur- 
pose and his plans. On that memorable night not an eye 
was closed in sleep. It had been announced by the heroic 
admiral that he thought it probable they would make land 
ere the morning. The greatest animation prevailed 
throughout the fleet — the Pinta taking the lead, the 
Santa Maria following, and the Nina in the rear. 

To the admiral the moment was indeed a critical one. 
Should his prediction fail him now, his last hope of control- 
ling the turbulent crews would be gone forever. Already the 
dusk of evening had settled upon the sea when he took his 
station on top of the castle of the Santa Maria and with eager 
eye scanned the western horizon. At ten o'clock at night 
there burst upon his vision a gleam of light as if it were a 

13 



14 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

torch ill a fisherman's canoe, dancing on the waves, or from 
a signal light in the hands of some human being rnshiiig 
from place to place upon the shore. The first to behold that 
light, he alone of all on board attached any importance to 
its transient gleams until, at two o'clock on the morning of 
October 12, 1492, a gun from the Pinta was followed by the 
joyful shout of "Land! Land!" — and Christopher Columbus 
became the discoverer of the western continent, and gave 
a new world to Castile and Leon, "the like of which was 
never done by any man in ancient or in later times." 

2. Principal Cause Leading to the Discovery. — When, on 
the morning of the discovery, Columbus landed on one of 
the islands now known as the Bahamas, and, calling it 
San Salvador, took possession in the name of Spain, the 
event marked the beginning of a new era in the world's 
history. 

Since the time of the Greek philosopher, Aristotle, many 
learned men had held to the theory that the earth is 
round, and that by sailing west on the "sea of darkness," 
as the Atlantic was then called, the mariner would be 
brought to the eastern coast of Asia. Prior to the fifteenth 
century, the discussion of these theories had been confined 
to literary circles, and had largely occupied the attention of 
men of thought rather than men of action. 

The march of progress among European nations had 
reached a point which demanded a larger field of operation. 
Material wealth and prosperity, rapidly increasing, had 
created a demand for the luxuries of the far east. A heavy 
trade had sprung up between Europe and Asia, carried on 
in the south by caravan over the Isthmus of Suez to the Red 
Sea, thence by vessel through that sea, or by camel train 
across the Arabian deserts to the Persian Gulf; and, in the 
north by way of the Black and Caspian Seas. The skilled 
Venetian sailors and the successful merchants of Venice 
dominated the one; the far-famed Genoese sailors and 
merchants, the other. By the middle of the century these 



FUNDING A CONTIKENT 1^ 

routes, however, were made very dangerous from the attacks 
of the Ottoman Turks, who were at war with the Christian 
nations of Europe. With the fall of Constantinople at their 
hands in 1453 trade was almost suppressed. From a com- 
mercial point of view, therefore, the theory of the scholars 
that the earth is round and that the East Indies and the 
shores of Asia could be reached by sailing westward, appealed 
powerfully to the business world. The dream of the scholar 
became the demand of the merchant. 

3. Other Causes Leading to the Discovery. — Greed of power 
caused the reigning kings of Europe to reach out after 
more territory over which they might spread their dominion. 
A desire to carry the Gospel to heathen lands moved the 
authorities of the church to favor the project of seeking a 
shorter route to Asia. Men interested in science and letters 
desired to see the fulfillment of their prophecies. 

Through long use, navigators had come to put their trust in 
the mariner's compass, and the boldest had begun to lay out 
highroads on the trackless ocean. Confidence in that little 
instrument, was soon to revolutionize commerce, to free even 
the timid sailor from the coast, and give him courage to push 
out into the sea. With this rising confidence, there was to 
spring into existence a vehement desire for the discovery of 
unknown lands. 

The invention of printing from movable type in the early 
part of the fifteenth century was exerting a silent but 
powerful influence upon all the active countries of Europe 
at this time. The human mind was freeing itself. Intel- 
ligence was on the increase. A desire had taken possession 
of the public mind to know more of the world and its 
peoples. 

4. Conditions in Europe. — At the time of the discovery, 
Europe was ready for just such an event in the world's his- 
tory. She was enjoying a short respite from the habitual 
toil of war. Spain had conquered the Moor and all but 
banished him from her borders after centuries of strife. The 



16 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES 

civil war in England, known as the War of the Roses, had 
ceased, and Henry VII. was restoring peace to the English 
nation ; even the Italian countries and France and Portugal 
were free from strife. During this period of political calm 
among the nations of Europe, there was a deep feeling of 
unrest, which, accelerated by the development of commerce 
with Asia and the islands of the eastern seas, the perfecting 
of the mariner's compass, and the art of printing, manifested 
itself in the desire for discovery and conquest. 

Naturally, the countries of Europe where this feeling of 
unrest was strongest, were those which commerce had quick- 
ened first, namely, those bordering upon the Mediterranean 
Sea and those looking outward upon the Atlantic. Hence, 
it was that at the close of the fifteenth century, the great 
powers of the world were beset with this universal passion 
for discovery. 

5. The Portuguese and the Route to India. — Under the 
influence of this new impulse, Portugal, on account of her out- 
ward position upon the Atlantic, had led all other countries 
of Europe in the desire to extend the geographical knowledge 
of the world. Prince Henry the Navigator, had made his 
little country famous. Portuguese sailors were seen and 
known in every port. They boldly pushed out into the sea, 
and in the early part of the century discovered the Azores, 
the Madeira, and the Cape Verd Islands. By the middle of 
the century they had reached the coast of Africa as far 
south as Upper Guinea and returned to Lisbon laden with 
gold-dust, ivory, and gums. Pope Nicholas V. immediately, 
on the strength of this later discovery, granted the Portuguese 
the possession of the lands and many of the islands already 
discovered, and of any further discoveries they should make 
as far east as India. They later reached Lower Guinea and the 
mouth of the Congo, and, in 148G, Bartholomew Dias reached 
the southern point of Africa, which King John II. of 
Portugal, named the Cape of Good Hope. It is not surpris- 
ing, therefore, that this enterprising little nation persisted 



FINDING A CONTINENT 17 

in its effort to find a new route to Asia, and that Vasco da 
Gama twelve years later (1498) rounded the Cape, crossed the 
Indian Ocean, and anchored safely in the harbor of Calicut. 

6. Christopher Columbus. — In the affairs of men and of 
nations, it has usually happened, that when an emergency has 
arisen, the man has been found ready for the hour. At 
this time there appeared upon the scene the son of a 
Genoese woolcomber. The father had done valiant service 
for the king of Portugal as one of his able navigators. 
On his death he had bequeathed his charts and maps to 
his son who had inherited his passion for the sea. Chris- 
topher Columbus was the most conspicuous navigator of 
his age, and is clearly entitled to the distinction, The Great 
Navigator. He combined the learning of the scholar with a 
practical knowledge of the sea. This tall seaman of "grave 
and gentle manner, though noble and saddened look," was 
indeed an enthusiast of the most pronounced type, in whom 
the "passion for discovery rose to the dignity of an inspira- 
tion." For eighteen long, weary years he importuned 
monarchs and merchants, courts and bankers, for ships and 
men, that he might set out upon the western route to 
Asia. He sent his brother, Bartholomew, to England, but 
King Henry VII. gave a deaf ear to his appeal. France like- 
wise lost her opportunity. King John II. of Portugal was 
encouraging his own seamen to make India by way of the 
Cape of Good Hope; he, therefore, could not be interested. 
The Italian merchants and bankers could not be induced to 
invest in the enterprise without its first having received the 
support of some powerful monarch. 

Spain at this time was approaching the zenith of her 
power and was ready for new fields of conquest; still, she 
refused Columbus assistance. Discouraged, he was, 

The fountain of his spirit's prophecy 
Sinking away and wasting, drop by drop. 
In the ungrateful sands of skeptic ears. 

— LowelVs '' Columbus.'''' 



18 



HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 



But he was a man who knew no such word as fail. His 
whole life had been one of hardship. At the age of thirty 
his hair was white, made so by the suffering and hardships 
which he had endured. At last success crowned his efforts, 
and the jewels of the queen of Spain became security for 
the successful prosecution of his proposed enterprise. Thus, 
to Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Castile, fell 
the honor of having first given encouragement and sub- 
stantial aid to the discoverer of the New World. 

7. First Voyage of Columbus.— The three historic caravels 
with musical names were furnished him by Spain, but his 




task was still a difficult one. It was not easy to secure 
crews for these ships when the nature of the voyage became 
known. Only the boldest sea captains ventured out of sight 
of land. The vast majority of sailors in those days were timid, 
very ignorant, and superstitious. Noticing that a ship seemed 
to be sailing "down hill" as it went out into the ocean, they 
reasoned that should it go too far, it could never sail "up 
hill" on its return. Notwithstanding the long use of the 
mariner's compass, still by the ordinary ship's crew it was 
looked upon with superstitious awe. 

By dint of much persuasion, promises of great reward and 
finally, by the use of force, crews were at last secured. 
They set sail amidst great rejoicing from Palos, Spain, on 



FINDING A CONTINENT 19 

the third of August, 1492. First sailing south to the 
Canary Islands, they boldly took a westerly course, and in 
ten weeks landed on the island which Columbus named San 
Salvador. Just which one of the Bahamas Columbus 
touched upon will probably never be known. 

From thence he sailed south to the coast of Cuba and 
Santo Domingo, taking possession of those islands in the 
name of the king and queen of Spain, Ferdinandand Isabella. 
Having lost his flagship, the Santa Maria, in a storm, he 
sailed for home, taking with him several natives, whom he 
called Indians, because he thought the island a part of the 
East Indies. He also brought back with him many curios- 
ities from these new lands. His return to Spain was hailed 
with joy by the king and queen, who bestowed gi'eat honors 
upon him. 

8. Effects of the Discovery. — Perhaps no single event in 
history surpasses in importance this first voyage of Colum- 
bus. It is true he did not discover the mainland of North 
America, but he opened up the way, thereby making its dis- 
covery an easy matter. 

The return of Columbus set the world on fire. The 
printing press in every city of Europe spread the news 
broadcast throughout the continent. "The revelation of the 
amazing fact that there were lands beyond the great ocean, 
inhabited by strange races of human beings, roused to pas- 
sionate eagerness the thirst for fresh discoveries. ' ' 

Three powerful motives urge man to action — the desire for 
wealth, the desire for power, and the desire to spread his 
peculiar religious tenets. These caused the voyage of 
Columbus, the success of which threw open a vast field for 
the exploitation of each. The business world, the governing 
class, the church, responded with alacrity to the call, and the 
sea of darkness was soon ablaze with the sail of the adven- 
turer and the explorer, to be followed later by the white 
sails of commerce. 

9. Later Voyages of Columbus. — Columbus made three 



20 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

other voyages to the New World. In the autumn of 1494 
with a large expedition he set sail on his second voyage for the 
purpose of taking possession of the new-found islands. He 
explored the southern coast of Cuba; founded a colony on 
Santo Domingo; and discovered the islands of Jamaica and 
Porto Eico. He returned to Spain in 1496 to solicit reen- 
forcements, provisions, and funds. 

On his third voyage, in 1498, he touched upon the con- 
tinent of South America, having reached the mainland at the 
mouth of the Orinoco River. Notwithstanding that he 
believed the Orinoco to be a continental river, he still held 
to the view that he was upon the eastern coast of Asia. 
Proceeding thence to the colony which he had founded in 
Santo Domingo he found he had been superseded in com- 
mand by a new governor who preferred charges of cruelty 
against Columbus and sent him in chains to Spain. On his 
arrival there the charges against him were investigated and 
he was released at once. 

On his fourth and last voyage, made in 1502-1504, he 
explored the coast of Central America, while still in quest 
of a **waterway to the far east." No man ever held more 
tenaciously to an idea than did Columbus to his belief in the 
direct western passage. Though he heard rumors of an 
ocean lying beyond Central America, he still persisted that 
it must be the Indian Ocean. 

He returned to Spain, and, it is said, died in poverty and 
distress in 1506, neglected by his king and his fellow-coun- 
trymen. 

10. The Norsemen in America — 1000, A. D. — It is believed 
by some historians that America was first discovered by 
Europeans in the year 1000 — five hundred years before 
Columbus set foot upon the island of San Salvador. This 
first discovery is represented to have been made by the Vik- 
ings of Norway and Iceland. It is held that these hardy and 
bold seamen crossing from Greenland, ranged the shores of 
Labrador, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the New Eng- 



FIKDIXG A CONTINENT 



21 



land coast as far south as Long Island Sound. They gave 
the name Vinland to the southern portion of this new coun- 
try on account of its yielding grapes in abundance. Even 
the names of some of these early explorers have been handed 
down — that of Lief Ericson being the most prominent among 
them. It is claimed that settlements were made at several 
points along the coasts of the region explored and that 
remains of these early settlements have been found from 




northern Labrador to Newport. The most noted ruin 
pointed out is that of the Old Mill at Newport. Some 
authorities insist that there never were any such voyages, 
even holding that the Newport Tower was built centuries later 
than the time of Lief Ericson ; while still others believe that 
the Vikings touched upon the shores of northern Labrador 
in the tenth or the eleventh century. It took five centuries 
of most severe schooling to prepare the European for the task 
of conquering and peopling a new continent. But when the 
time did come and the cry of "Land! Land!" rose joyfully 
from the deck of the Spanish caravel in the western seas, 
Europe was ready, and the whole continent responded with 
enthusiasm to the call. Not to the son of Eric the Eed, 
whose voyages are all but lost in the mythland of history, 
but to the son of the Genoese woolcomber belongs the glory 
of the discovery of America. 



CHAPTER II 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 

SPANISH, 1492-1382 
PORTUGUESE, 1500-1502 
FRENCH, 1524-16S7 
DUTCH, 1609-1613 
ENGLISH, 1497-1607 



'^('^7]' 'o^jX.^ l^iw 



11. The Line of Demarcation. — The opening of the six- 
teenth century was marked by great activity in Spain. 
Exploring expeditions were leaving her ports thick and fast 
for the New World. 
According to a papal 
decree issued from 
Rome in 1493, on ac- 
count of the Colum- 
bus discovery Spain was 
to have all lands, no 
matter by whom dis- 
covered, lying west of 
a line drawn from the 
North to the South 
Pole at a distance of 
one hundred leagues to 
the west of the Azores 
and Cape Verd Islands. 
This line as at first 

drawn not being satisfactory, it was located in the follow- 
ing year, by treaty between Spain and Portugal, three 
hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verd Islands. 
It is known in history as the Line of Demarcation, and 
crossed Brazil east of the mouth of the Amazon River. 
Upon this decree of a Roman pontiff the Spanish and the 

22 




THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 23 

Portuguese divided their interests. In the course of events 
the latter directed their attention to Brazil, the coast of 
Africa, and the eastern route to India; the former, to the 
West Indies, the lands bordering upon the Gulf of Mexico, 
and that portion of South America lying west of Brazil. 

England and France, feeling that they had lost their 
great opportunity in not having extended aid to Columbus, 
looked askance at this decree of Pope Alexander VI., and 
later disputed the right of the papal authority thus to dis- 
pose of the undiscovered lands of the world. 

The French, during the century, entered the continent of 
North America by way of the St. Lawrence River and the 
Great Lakes ; later, they pushed down the Mississippi valley, 
penetrating as far south as Texas. The English preempted 
the Atlantic Coast, from Nova Scotia to Florida. Even the 
Dutch, on the strength of a later discovery, laid claim to the 
stretch of the Atlantic seaboard from Narragansett Bay 
to the Delaware River. Thus, in the course of two cen- 
turies, the Line of Demarcation was ignored altogether. 

THE SPANISH 

12. Impelling Motives. — The Spaniard was quick to follow 
up the advantage gained by the discoveries and voyages of 
Columbus. Having pushed the hated Moor across the 
border to the land from whence he came, he was ready for 
new fields of conquest. Other nations were to be conquered, 
and heathen peoples converted. The four voyages of Colum- 
bus had served to surround the New World problem with a 
glamour. The "riches of the Indies" was still the cry. 
"The splendors of the newly-found world were, indeed, 
difficult to be resisted. The wildest romances were greedily 
received and the Old World, with its familiar and painful 
realities, seemed mean and hateful beside the fabled glories 
of the New. It was rumored that gold and precious jewels 
abounded everywhere. Wealth beyond the wildest dreams of 



24 



HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



jV^_Greenland\ C-^ 



avarice could be had for the gathering. " Even the fabled 
* 'fountain of perpetual youth" became a fixed belief and 
began to allure men into the western seas. It took a cen- 
tury's sacrifice of blood and treasure to convince the Spaniard 
of his error. He eagerly 
entered into the search 
for gold, and to aid him 
in his venture began the 
planting of colonies. He 
was a great explorer ; all 
honor to him. But he 
failed as a colonizer be- 
cause colonization re- 
quired honest toil and 
infinite patience — the lat- 
ter he had not ; the 
former, he would not 
give. Nevertheless, the 
Spaniard has left his 
mark upon the western 
continent and has handed 
down a long list of early 

explorers, many of whom were kindled by a lofty zeal to 
extend the dominion of Spain over the whole of the New 
World. All of the islands of the West Indies were soon 
discovered and explored, and the adjacent coasts of the 
mainland lay stretched out as an invitation to greater 
discoveries in an unknown land. The mystery of it all 
appealed to the imagination and fired the Spanish mind to 
further deeds of conquest and of glory. 

13. Ponce de Leon Discovered Florida — 1513. — Ponce de 
Leon had been a companion and friend of Columbus on his 
second voyage, and had imbibed much of the great navi- 
gator's enthusiasm. While governor of the eastern part of 
the island of Hayti, he was filled with an ambition to effect 
the conquest of the island of Porto Rico. This he did after 




^ Magell, 
\p. 1520 



THE SPANISH CLAIMS 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 25 

a fearful campaign of slaughter, opening up the island to 
Spanish colonization. While acting as the first governor of 
Porto Rico, and meditating upon the fact that he was past 
the prime of life, his imagination was fired by a fable which 
was current among the Spanish colonists in the western 
world, that there existed in one of the islands of the Bahamas 
a fountain whose waters possessed the magic power of restor- 
ing youth to old age. As strange as it may seem, this man 
of intelligence gave a credulous ear to these Indian rumors, 
and though laughed at by his associates in the colony and 
his friends at the court of Spain, he still persisted in the 
belief, and asked that the king might give him authority to 
organize an expedition and grant him permission to discover 
the island. The king, feeling kindly disposed toward de 
Leon, lent him assistance which soon put him on the tramp 
in search of this fountain of perpetual youth. 

To this incredulous belief is due the discovery of the North 
American continent by de Leon. Though he did not find 
his fountain, he did discover Florida in 1513, finding it a 
land of flowers and singing birds and tropical fruits, though 
inhabited by many hostile savage tribes. He planted the 
cross, sang the Spanish song of discovery, and added Florida 
to the domain of Spain. 

14. Balboa and the Pacific Ocean — 1513. — Vasco Nufiez de 
Balboa, said also to have been a companion of Columbus, 
planted a colony on the coast of the Isthmus of Panama. 
Hearing the rumor, to which Columbus had turned a deaf 
ear, of a vast sea beyond the high mountains, he determined 
to learn the truth for himself. Accordingly, in the face of 
great natural obstacles and the hostility of native tribes, with 
a little band of seventy-five followers, he was led by a native 
guide to the summit of a lofty peak, from which he beheld 
the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Two weeks later he 
descended to its shores, and amidst great pomp and splendor, 
took possession of all the lands touching upon its waters in 
the name of the king of Spain. 



26 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

15. Cortez Conquers the Aztecs — 1519-1521. — Hernando 
Cortez had come to the New World in 1504 and won renown 
as a soldier in the conquest of Cuba. On the discovery of 
Mexico, the governor of Cuba was seized with a desire to 
subdue the land of the Aztecs and place the Empire of 
Montezuma under Spanish rule. Cortez was given com- 
mand of an expedition in order that he might carry out the 
governor's plans. He landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519 
with his army of conquest. He founded Vera Cruz, and 
after dramatically burning liis ships so that neither soldier 
nor sailor could think of returning home, he marched 
inland. He at first met with bloody resistance, but was 
finally permitted to enter the capital unmolested. Estab- 
lishing himself in one of the strong fortresses of the city, he 
made a prisoner of the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, and 
soon brought down upon his head the wrath of the Aztec 
chieftains on account of his despotic cruelty. The natives, 
biding their time, laid siege to the fortress, and ere the 
army of invasion was aware, it was surrounded by a vast 
horde of Aztec tribes, cutting off every avenue of escape. 
The alternative was offered Cortez of certain death by starva- 
tion, or possible death in an attempt to cut his way out. 
His prisoner, Montezuma, having been accidentally killed by 
his own subjects in a parley, his last hope was gone. In a 
desperate and bloody encounter, he cut his way through the 
Aztec lines and succeeded in reaching a friendly tribe with 
but a remnant of his men. He soon returned to the strug- 
gle, and, after fearful destruction of life and property, the 
Aztec yielded to tlie Spaniard and the empire of the Monte- 
zumas passed to the domain of Spain. The destruction of 
this Indian empire in the heart of Mexico, comprising the 
most enlightened and highly civilized people in the western 
continent, constitutes one of the most pathetic chapters in 
early New World history, and is paralleled only by the over- 
throw of the Incas in Peru by the cruel Pizzarros in 1531-34. 
The history of both conquests has been preserved in imperish- 



THE BACE FOR POSSESSION 27 

able literature by the historian Prescott in his thrilling and 
fascinating volumes on the "Conquest of Mexico," and the 
"Conquest of Peru." 

16. Magellan Discovers Straits of Magellan — 1520 : Philip- 
pine Islands — 1521 : His Ship Victoria Completes Circuit of 
Globe — 1522. — Fernando da Magellan, who had done valiant 
service as a soldier for Portugal in the conquest of the 
East Indies as well as of Morocco, became dissatisfied at his 
treatment and, renouncing his allegiance to his native land, 
enlisted under the banner of Charles V. , who had just been 
crowned emperor. Believing the Moluccas to be an invit- 
ing field for discovery and exploration, he maintained that 
they were omitted from the treaty which established the old 
Line of Demarcation, and, by his enthusiasm, succeeded in 
persuading Charles to enter that portion of the world set 
aside by the pope for conquest by Portugal. Magellan was 
placed in charge of a large government expedition, whose 
avowed purpose was the opening of a western passage to the 
Moluccas. This voyage will ever hold the interested atten- 
tion of students of history. To it is due : (1) The discovery 
of the Straits of Magellan ; (2) the discovery and possession 
of the far-away Philippine Islands, which for nearly five cen- 
turies remained in undisputed possession of Spain, until 
Admiral Dewey, of the United States Navy (May 1, 1898), 
swept Spanish rule from the islands forever; (3) and the 
first circumnavigation of the globe, which completely silenced 
all who opposed the theory of the rotundity of the earth. 
Magellan lost his life on one of the Philippine Islands in an 
encounter with the natives, but his good ship Victoria, the 
only surviving vessel of his fleet, reached the Moluccas, and 
later rounding the Cape of Good Hope and passing 
through the Straits of Gibraltar came to anchor in the 
Spanish port from which she had sailed on her outward 
voyage. 

17. De Ayllon and San Miguel — 1526. — Vasquez de Ayllon, 
a Spanish lawyer and a member of the Superior Court of the 



28 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

colony of Santo Domingo, became greatly absorbed in the 
problem of exploration and colonization, and through his 
influence at the Spanish court, secured permission to fit 
out exploring expeditions which he sent to Florida and the 
coasts farther north. Through having enticed many of 
their numbers on board the Spanish ships and having 
afterwards condemned them to slavery in the mines of 
Hayti, one of these expeditions secured for the Spanish the 
lasting enmity of the native tribes of the coast. 

In 1526 De Ay lion attempted to plant the first Spanish 
colony within what is now the borders of the United States. 
He selected a site near the later English settlement of James- 
town and called it San Miguel. Beset by hostile tribes on 
every hand, the knights of Spain succumbed to the red men 
of the forest. The leader sickened and died of a fever, and 
this first attempt at colonization in the United States ended 
in disaster. 

18. Narvaez Meets with Disaster — 1528. — Panfilo de 
Narvaez had won distinction in the conquest of Cuba 
and was in high favor with Velasquez, the governor of 
that island. The latter, having become jealous of Cortez 
in Mexico, dispatched Narvaez to supplant him. He was, 
however, surprised and captured by Cortez and banished 
from Mexico; upon which he returned to Spain, where 
in 1528, he was made governor of Florida. Having been 
granted permission to effect the conquest of Florida, 
he led into the interior of that country an expedition 
of four hundred men, whose avowed purpose was the 
discovery and plunder of the rich peoples of whom they 
heard. After months of marching and countermarching 
through what is now a portion of the southern states, the 
company was reduced by disease and conflict with the 
natives to four survivors. After enduring untold hardships 
and traveling thousands of miles, these four men, one of 
them the treasurer of the ill-fated expedition, Alva Nufiez 
Cabeza de Vaca by name, arrived at a Spanish settlement 



THE RACE EOR POSSESSION 29 

in northern Mexico, in 1536. De Yaca afterwards published 
in Spain a narrative of the Narvaez expedition and his own 
subsequent adventures. This narrative has been translated 
into several languages and is even at this day considered of 
great historical value. 

19. Coronado and the " Seven Fabled Cities of Cibola " ; the 
Quivera — 1540-1542. — The thrilling tales told by Cabeza de 
Vaca and his three companions of the fabulously vp-ealthy 
tribes in the north, led to the expedition of Francisco 
Vasquez Coronado, who, in 1540, led out from Mexico 
an army of discovery in search of these fabled Indian 
empires of the north. Entering New Mexico, he found 
the cities of Cibola to be but mean Indian villages 
of the Zuni tribe, devoid of wealth or the least sug- 
gestion of opulence. He still sought the kingdom of 
Quivera, and, penetrating as far northward as the plains of 
Kansas, found the capital of these tribes of Quivera likewise 
but a poor Indian village. He retraced his steps with but a 
remnant of his followers, but the historian of the expedition 
has handed down a valuable and interesting narrative of the 
journey. 

Within a half century after the discovery of Columbus, the 
Spaniard, as one representative of the Latin race, had thus 
penetrated the very heart of the North American continent, 
and looked upon the vast stretch of plain and prairie which 
was later to be subdued by his Anglo-Saxon brother. 

In that half -forgotten era, 
With the avarice of old, 
Seeking cities he was told 
Had been paved with yellow gold 

In the kingdom of Quivera — 

Came the restless Coronado 
To the open Kansas plain. 
With his knights from sunny Spain ; 
In an effort that, though vain, 

Thrilled with boldness and bravado. 



30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

League by league, in aimless marching, 
Knowing scarcely where or why, 
Crossed they uplands drear and dry, 
That an unprotected sky 

Had for centuries been parching. 

But their expectations, eager, 

Found, instead of fruitful lands. 
Shallow streams and shifting sands, 
Where the buffalo in bands 

Roamed o'er deserts dry and meager. 

Back to scenes more trite, yet tragic, 

Marched the knights with armor'd steeds; 
Not for them the quiet deeds; 
Not for them to sow the seeds 

From which empires grow like magic. 

Never land so hunger-stricken 

Could a Latin race re-mold ; 

They could conquer heat or cold — 

Die for glory or for gold — 
But not make a desert quicken. 

Thus Quivera was forsaken ; 

And the world forgot the place 
Through the lapse of time and space. 
Then the blue-eyed Saxon race 

Came and bade the desert waken. 

— Ware. 

20. De Soto and the Mississippi River — 1539-1542. — Her- 
nando de Soto had been engaged in many active exploring and 
colonizing expeditions since 1514. He had ably assisted the 
Pizzaros in the conquest of Peru (1531-34), where he amassed 
great wealth. This gave him high standing at the Spanish 
court and, on his return to Spain, in 1536, he was, in the 
following year, appointed governor of Cuba and Florida, 
with orders to settle and explore the latter country. He 
organized an expedition at Havana in 1539, soon landed at 
Tampa Bay, on the coast of Florida, sent part of his ships 
back to Havana, and began the repetition of the De 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSIOlf 31 

Ay lion and Narvaez disasters. In the hope of finding 
richer countries, he continued; and for three years he 
was urged forward in search of gold. It is thought that 
he traversed what are now the States of Florida, Georgia, 
the Carolinas, Alabama, Tennessee, and Mississippi. He 
suffered great hardships and was forced to fight many 
fierce battles with the Indians. He discovered the Mis- 
sissippi River in 1541, and explored the region west of the 
Mississippi nearly as far north as the Missouri. Turning 
southward in 1542, he reached the junction of the Red 
River and the Mississippi, where he sickened and died. 
His body was buried in the great river which he had 
discovered. The leader dead, the remnant of this gay com- 
pany which had embarked with such high hopes at Havana 
three years before, built rafts, floated down the great river 
out into the Gulf, and finally reached the Spanish settlements 
in Mexico. 

21. Cabrillo and California— 1542-1543.— While De Soto 
was exploring the region of the southern states and Coronado 
was searching for the Quivera in the interior of the con- 
tinent, Juan Rodriquez Cabrillo was exploring the Pacific 
coast, and its adjacent islands. On the California coast, he 
discovered and named many islands, capes, gulfs, and bays. 
He died while wintering in San Diego harbor in 1543. 
Before his vessels returned home, they sailed north as far as 
the coast of Oregon. Cabrillo left a manuscript narrative of 
his adventures and explorations, which is preserved in the 
historical archives of Spain. 

22. Menendez Founds St. Augustine, 1565; Espejo, Santa 
Fe, 1582. — A half century had passed since the dawn of the 
New World and the Spaniard had not yet planted a single 
colony north of the region of Mexico. Every attempt had 

.ended in dismal failure or disaster, until Pedro Menendez, 
successor to De Soto as governor of Cuba and Florida, 
founded the city of St. Augustine on the eastern coast of 
the peninsula. A decade and a half later (1582) Antonio 



32 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 

de Espejo founded Santa Fe in New Mexico. These are 
the two oldest cities in the United States. 

THE PORTUGUESE 

23. Americus Vespucius and the Naming of America — 
1497-1504. — Americus Vespucius, a scholarly and capable 
Italian navigator, claims to have made four voyages to the 
New World, two in the Spanish and two in the Portuguese 
service. He has left narratives of these voyages. In the 
voyage of 1497 he claims to have discovered the mainland a 
year before Columbus first gazed upon the continent at the 
mouth of the Orinoco Eiver. 

In the voyages of 1501 and 1503, while in the Portuguese 
service, he visited the Brazilian coast and in his narrative 
of the first of these Portuguese voyages maintained that 
the map of the world then known should be reconstructed 
and made to include a "fourth continent" which he called 
Mundus Novus, — Europe, Asia, and Africa constituting the 
other three continents. The theory of a new continent thus 
early became associated with the name of this learned geog- 
rapher. Columbus combated the theory to the time of his 
death. Indeed, the fiction that the new lands were a part of 
the East Indies or the continent of Asia was not finally dis- 
pelled till Cortez measured his strength with the Aztec and 
revealed the truth about Mexico. It is not strange, there- 
fore, that a German teacher of geography in the College of 
St. Die should have used the following words in a little 
treatise on geography published in 1507: "And the fourth 
part of the world, having been discovered by Americus, it 
maybe called Amerige; that is, the land of Americus or 
America." At first applied to Brazil, the suggestion was 
eventually adopted and was soon applied to the whole of the 
New World. 

24. Cabral Discovers Brazil — 1500. — However, a year before 
Vespucius had reached the coast of Brazil, Pedro Alvarez 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSIOK 33 

Cabral had taken possession of it in the name of the king of 
Portugal. He had sailed from Lisbon in command of a large 
fleet with instructions to carry on the discoveries begun in 
India by Vasco da Gama. A tempest drove the fleet far out of 
its course and Cabral was astonished, on an April morning in 
1500, at the sailor's cry of "Land! Land!" Learning that 
this land lay on Portugal's side of the Line of Demarcation, 
he planted a colony and dispatched a ship to his king to 
advise him of the discovery; then proceeded on his route 
past the Cape of Good Hope to India. 

25. Cortereal Visits and Names Labrador — 1500. — Gaspar 
Cortereal, under permission of his king, fitted out an expedi- 
tion at his own expense and set sail on a voyage of discovery 
in search of a northwest passage to Asia. While he failed in 
his object, he seems to have skirted the coast of North 
America and touched upon the shores of Greenland. He 
imposed upon many places purely Portuguese names, 
Labrador among the number. The history of a people is 
sometimes revealed through a study of their geographical 
names. Labrador means the "land of laborers or slaves," 
and suggests to the student of history that the Portuguese 
became in their time the greatest and most heartless slave 
traders in the world. 

THE FRENCH 

26. The French Fishermen. — Seven years after the dis- 
covery of the continent, the fisheries of Newfoundland were 
known to the hardy sailors of Breton, on the western shores 
of France. Each succeeding year found their fishing boats, 
in increasing numbers, laying iu supplies for the markets of 
France from the cod-banks off Newfoundland. Their 
marvelous stories of the new coasts in the west soon 
became current in France. To the circumstance of the voy- 
ages of these simple folk, engaged in private enterprise, is 
doubtless due the later location and rise upon the western 



34 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



continent of that New France whose story has been so 
eloquently told by the historian Parkman. 

27. Verrazano and New France — 1524. — France had little 
respect for the Line of Demarcation and early entered into 
competition for a share of the western world. Her king, 
Francis II., at bitter enmity with Charles of Spain, sent an 
expedition under command of Giovanni Verrazano in search 

of a northwest passage 
to China. Touching upon 
the shores of North Am- 
erica at a 23oint near Cape 
Hatteras, he is said to 
have ranged the entire 
coast of the continent 
from the Carolinas in the 
south to Newfoundland 
in the north. He ex- 
plored with more or less 
detail many of the bays 
and harbors of the At- 
lantic coast as far north 
as that island. He took 
possession in the name 
of his monarch of the 
region explored, and to 
the whole gave the name. New France. He was perhaps 
the first European to sail into New York Bay and look 
upon the broad expanse of the Hudson River. Upon this 
voyage of discovery France was wont, in a later century, 
to base her claim to the territory which she proposed to 
carve out for herself in the New World. 

28. Cartier Discovers the St. Lawrence — 1535. — The wars 
in France prevented any further expeditions till a decade 
later. On the restoration of peace, the celebrated French 
navigator, Jacques Cartier, under direction of his king, 
made three voyages to the western continent. On the first 




THE FRKNCH CLAIM.S 



THE KACE FOR POSSESSION 35 

he explored the northern coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
and on the second (1535) he discovered the St. Lawrence 
River, ascending it as far as the Indian village of Hoc-he- 
laga, located on the present site of Montreal. Oartier's 
third voyage, made in 1541-42, in connection with Roberval, 
was for the purpose of planting a colony in New France. A 
landing was effected near the present site of the city of 
Quebec, but the enterprise ended in failure, and the leader 
returned to France. The French in this first attempt at 
colonization were to keep company — in almost the identical 
years — with the Spanish failures of De Soto in Florida and 
Coronado in the interior of the continent, and with the 
success of Cabrillo on the California coast. 

29. The Huguenots Attempt to Found a Colony in Florida 
— 1562-67. — After the still further lapse of a quarter of a 
century, the story of New France reopened with a tragedy. 
"The political and religious enmities which were soon to 
bathe Europe in blood broke out with an intense fury in the 
distant wilds of Florida." Admiral Ooligny, the leader 
of the Huguenots, as the French Protestants were called, 
was anxious to establish in America a colony of refuge 
for his persecuted brethren. He sent the first expedition in 
1562 under the leadership of Jean Ribaut, who touched 
upon the coast of Florida, discovered the St. Johns River, 
planted the ensign of France, and named the new country 
Carolina, after the boy king, Charles IX. Sailing north- 
ward in search of a suitable harbor, he finally planted his 
little colony of thirty souls in the vicinity of Port Royal, 
South Carolina. He soon set sail on his return voyage to 
the Old World and was unable to return for three years. 
The Port Royal colonists, thus abandoned, eked out a 
miserable existence, and, unable to endure their hardships 
longer, built a ship and put to sea in the hope of reaching 
home. After enduring untold suffering, they were picked 
up, nearly famished, in the English Channel by an Englibh 
vessel. 



36 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 

A second expedition was sent out in 1564 under Rene de 
Laudonniere, who planted a colony on the St. Johns River. 
His Huguenot company constituted a motley crew. The 
hardships and misery which they endured, due in a large 
measure to lack of harmony among themselves, cannot be 
recounted. Their distress was relieved by John Hawkins, 
an English captain who had sailed into the mouth of the St. 
Johns River to re-fill his casks with water. On the urgent 
demand of his followers Laudonniere traded his cannon for 
one of Hawkins's vessels. He was being forced by his fol- 
lowers to abandon the colony, and needed this ship to take 
them home. No sooner had the English captain sailed than 
Jean Ribaut appeared upon the scene with provisions and 
supplies, thus relieving their distress and suffering. Their 
joy, however, was soon cut short by the blow which fell upon 
their little colony. 

Spain, intensely Catholic and always hating the Huguenots, 
had been watching with a jealous eye their attempt to plant 
a colony in the New World. Learning tliat they had landed 
in Florida, she proceeded to dispute their right, claiming 
Florida by the pope's decree and by right of the de Leon 
discovery. Accordingly Menendez hastened to Florida, 
and as soon as he had planted the colony of St. Augustine, 
proceeded to lay plans to dispossess the Huguenots. 
Within two years this cruel Spaniard butchered, massacred, 
or hanged nine hundred of the French colonists. It is 
not strange, therefore, that in 1567 Dominic de Gourges 
came over to America with the avowed purpose of 
avenging the butchery of his fellow Huguenots. His ven- 
geance swept the Spanish settlements like a whirlwind until 
only the settlement of St. Augustine remained. Finding 
he could not hold his own against the larger Spanish force, 
he returned to France. When Menendez the year before 
had executed the last of the French, he marked the place 
with a cross bearing the inscription, ''Not as to Frenchmen, 
but as to Lutherans." When De Gourges sailed for France 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 37 

the inscription read, "Not as to Spaniards, but as to traitors, 
robbers, and murderers." 

30. Champlain, the Father of New France. — To quote Park- 
man the historian: "Samuel de Champlain, has been fitly 
called the Father of New France. In him were embodied 
her religious zeal and romantic spirit of adventure. Before 
the close of his career, purged of her heresy, she took the 
posture which she held to the day of her death — in one hand 
the crucifix and in the other, the sword. His life, full of 
significance, is the true beginning of her eventful history." 
He was "devout, high-minded, brave, tender." He had 
made explorations in Canada and in New England, having 
spent much time exploring the coast. He is said to have 
been an excellent draughtsman, and has left some of the best 
maps extant of that upper coast. He founded Quebec (1608) 
— the first permanent French settlement in America. He 
discovered Lake Champlain in 1609. He was instrumental 
in laying successfully the foundations of the French Colonial 
Empire. He was appointed governor of New France, and 
remained in that position until 1635. He made one error, 
however, which had serious consequences and possibly cost 
the French their dominion in the New World. This was in 
joining a war party of Hurons against the Iroquois, thus 
incurring the lasting enmity of that powerful confederacy. 
From this error of judgment fatal results followed in later 
years. The time came when the French needed the aid of 
the Iroquois against the English, but they petitioned in vain. 

31. De Monts and His Agricultural Colony in Canada. — 
However, before Champlain established Quebec, he had 
assisted in a prior attempt to plant a colony in America, under 
the leadership of the Sieur de Monts. After the tragic end of 
the Huguenots in the south in 1565, no further attempts 
at colonizing were made by the French until 1604. A 
movement had been set on foot to establish an agricultural 
colony, and in that year, under the leadership of De Monts, 
a settlement was made on an island in the Bay of Fundy. 



38 HISTORY OF THE UJ^ITED STATES 

This proviDg an undesirable site, they moved across the bay 
the next year and founded Port Eoyal, Nova Scotia. The 
colony never flourished under French rule and in 1607 was 
abandoned. 

32. The Pioneers of France in the New World — Soldiers, 
Fur Traders, and the Jesuit Fathers. — From the time Cham- 
plain planted the first permanent French settlement in Amer- 
ica just three-quarters of a century elapsed before La Salle, 
the discoverer of the great west, planted the lily-standard 
of France at the mouth of the Mississippi Eiver, and, taking 
possession of the vast interior of the continent in the name 
of France, named it Louisiana in honor of his king. A vast 
pioneer army of missionaries, traders, and soldiers had made 
possible this crowning act of La Salle. The military power 
of France was always in evidence, and the French soldier in 
the conquest of the New World was an imperative necessity. 
But with the soldier there went the trapper, the hunter, and 
the fur trader, who pushed their canoes up every navigable 
stream in quest of their prey or to traffic with the Indians. 
In fur and fishing the adventurers of France had found 
"veritable gold mines." The demand in Europe for these 
commodities became enormous. 

Hand in hand with the soldier and the trader went the 
Jesuit missionary, zealous to convert the savage and build 
up a Christian empire in the wilderness of the west. With 
a devotion that has seldom been surpassed, with a self-denial 
and self-abasement that still astonishes the world, the Jesuits 
went everywhere, spreading the doctrine of their faith. 
They were the advisers, both spiritual and temporal, of 
every French trading post in America. Among them 
all, two names stand out prominently as the leaders in the 
far west. The early history of many of the north central 
states of our republic cannot be written without mention of 
the names of Marquette and Joliet. It was they who in 
1673 rounded the Great Lakes, crossed to the headwaters of 
the Mississippi River, and in time drifted down the stream 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 39 

to within seven hundred miles of its mouth, thus demon- 
strating that the great river emptied its waters into the 
Gulf of Mexico and not into the "Vermillion Sea," as the 
Pacific was then called. 

33. La Salle and the Extension of New France. — Ten years 
later, La Salle pushed down the great river, and took pos- 
session in the name of France of that vast territory, one-half 
of which was later to be surrendered to the English; the 
other half, to he sold to the republic of the United States in 
1803, for fifteen millions of dollars. "La Salle stands in 
history like a statue cast in iron." At first a Jesuit, he 
renounced his connection with that society, and, in behalf 
of France, began his interminable voyages of exploration. 
He traversed a stretch of country from the Great Lakes on 
the north to the Ohio Eiver on the south ; and from the port- 
age of Chicago to the mouth of the Mississippi. He is said 
to have traveled twenty thousand miles in the interior of the 
continent, most of the distance on foot or in an Indian bark 
canoe. He built the first ship that ever sailed the waters of 
the lakes above Niagara. He is truly entitled to the dis- 
tinction. The Discoverer of the Great West. To him, more 
than any other man, was the mother country indebted for 
the expansion of New France. 

It is sad to relate that after this crowning act of his life, he 
repaired to France only to be enlisted in an enterprise which 
led to his death by assassination. Spain patrolled the Gulf of 
Mexico, by her warships forbidding any nation to enter the 
ports of the West Indies or of Mexico unless by her permis- 
sion. La Salle, however, on his way over from France suc- 
ceeding in deceiving the Spanish at Santo Domingo, planted 
a French colony on the coast of Texas. This colony did not 
flourish on account of Indian foes without and wicked 
plottings within. La Salle had concluded to abandon the 
colony and lead his followers back to France through the 
Canadian settlement of Quebec. He, however, was assas- 
sinated on the eve of his departure. "Thus died," says 



40 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Parkman, **iTi ignominy and darkness the last embers of the 
doomed colony of La Salle." 

THE DUTCH 

34. Holland was also a seafaring nation, and yet she, like 
Portugal, failed to profit much by discoveries in the New 
World. On the single voyage of Henry Hudson in 1609 she 
based her claim. He entered the beautiful river, to which 
he gave his name, and the Dutch were thus enabled right- 
fully to claim one of the richest sections of the New World. 
They made their claim good in 1613, by permanent settle- 
ment on the present site of New York City. 

THE ENGLISH 

35. England. — We now come to the nation which was later 
to have such a vast influence upon the North American 
continent. When Henry 



VII. of England turned 

a deaf ear to the appeal 

of Columbus, he lost an 

opportunity which in all 

probability he did not 

cease regretting to the 

day of his death. At 

that time, the English 

navigators and sailors 

were worthy competitors 

with those of Spain and 

Portugal, and, after the 

discovery of Columbus, 

they were imbued with 

a desire to penetrate the 

sea of darkness and share 

in the discoveries of the 

mysterious land beyond the Atlantic. While Portugal strove 

for a southeast passage and Spain for a western, English 




THK ENGLISH CLAIMS 






>IAGELt,AN 
VKSPUCIUS 



BAr^BOA 
SEBASTIAN CABOT 



Discoverers a:nd Explorers 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSION" 41 

and French sailors set their faces toward the northwest. 
They believed, and rightly, that if there were an open pas- 
sage, the route by the northwest would be shorter than the 
routes chosen by either Spain or Portugal. For the first 
voyage to the New World under the flag of England we are 
indebted to this belief. 

36. The Cabots Establish the Claim of England— 1497, 
1498. — John Cabot and Sebastian his son were Genoese 
sailors in the employ of England. Under the direction 
of the king of their adopted country, they made a 
voyage to the New World, touching at some point on the 
Labrador coast. They sailed southward for a distance of 
some three hundred miles and landing at a point not now 
known, planted a cross and the flag of England, and, after 
three months, returned to the harbor of Bristol from which 
they had sailed. Thus to John Cabot and to England is due 
the first discovery of the North American continent. He 
had touched Labrador fourteen months before Columbus 
saw the mainland at the mouth of the Orinoco River. 
By this early and remarkable voyage of the Cabots Eng- 
land was able to establish her claim to nearly the whole of 
North America. However, on the death of Henry VIL, 
his successors, out of respect for the papal decree, did noth- 
ing to further the claims made good by these early voyagers. 
Busy with affairs at home, the English allowed three-quarters 
of a century to elapse before they again appeared in the 
western world. 

37. England under Queen Elizabeth. — Queen Elizabeth was 
keenly alive to the interests of her people, and under her, Eng- 
land rapidly rose in power. In commerce she dared to compete 
with all the other countries of the world. She became the 
antagonist of Spain and the great champion of Protestantism 
in Europe. She "strengthened her navy, filled her arsenals, 
and encouraged the building of ships in England." The 
spirit of English nationality was developed in her reign. 
She encouraged adventure and discovery in Africa and Russia, 



42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and commerce with the distant peoples of Asia. She encour- 
aged science, letters, art, invention, and discovery. In her 
day Shakespeare and Spenser sang, and Sidney and Bacon 
wrote. Finally the overthrow of the Spanish Armada laid 
the foundation of England's supremacy at sea. 

38. Frobisher Enters Baffin's Bay in Search of a Northwest 
Passage. — Before the destruction of the Spanish Armada, 
Queen Elizabeth had been encouraging exploration and dis- 
covery in the New World. Her fishermen off the New- 
foundland coast became the "lords of the banks." In 

1576 she sent Martin Frobisher to find a northwest passage 
to the Indies. This bold seaman, with two small barks, 
penetrated as far north as Baffin's Bay. He loaded his ship 
with a substance the natives assured him was gold, and, 
returning to England, "dropped down the Thames, where 
Queen Elizabeth waved her hand in token of favor." His 
load of yellow earth proved to be mica, but belief in his 
"Arctic Eldorado" lured English seamen into the cold 
regions of the north seas for many years. 

39. Drake, the Bold Eover, Circumnavigates the Globe — 
1577-1580. — These were the days when the battle was to 
the strong. Thus no ship was safe on the high seas unless 
manned by a valiant captain and crew. England had many 
of these and no captain more bold than Sir Francis Drake. 
He had already made several successful piratical voyages to 
the West Indies, returning to England with rich booty. In 

1577 he resolved to try his fortunes on the west coast of 
America, where the Spaniard was reaping a rich harvest 
from the coffers of the Incas. He followed in the track of 
Magellan, and turned Cape Horn. Entering different har- 
bors along the South American coast, he despoiled Spaniard 
and native alike, until his most sanguine dreams had 
been realized. But now came the question of a return 
home. Should it be by the route he came, the Spaniard 
might waylay him. He therefore sailed leisurely up the 
coast as far north as Oregon, which he named New Albion, 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 43 

and passed the winter of 1579 in one of her safe harbors. 
The following year he struck boldly across the Pacific Ocean 
and returned home by the Cape of Good Hope. He was the 
first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. 

40. Sir Humphrey Gilbert Makes an Attempt to Found an 
English Colony. — The queen now determined to plant an Eng- 
lish colony in her new possessions. In 1583 Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert, *'one of those persons whose life and conduct serve to 
brighten the pages of history," was fitted out with five ships. 
He made three attempts to found a colony in Newfoundland, 
but failed on account of the severity of the climate and dissen- 
sions among his followers. On his return from his last voy- 
age the vessel in which he sailed went down at sea. His last 
recorded words were, "We are as near to Heaven by sea as 
by land." Sir Humphrey was a step-brother of Sir Walter 
Raleigh and had been assisted and encouraged in his colonial 
enterprise by his relative. 

41. Sir Walter Raleigh and Virginia. — Remembering the 
experiences of his step-brother in the rigors of the New- 
foundand climate, Raleigh resolved to establish a colony 
on the southern coast from which the French had been 
banished. Being a great favorite of the queen, he readily 
obtained a large grant. An exploring party was sent 
out, which returned with glowing accounts of the coun- 
try. It was reported to be "a land of perpetual flowers 
and eternal springs." Raleigh caught the fancy and 
named the country which he sought to colonize Virginia, 
in honor of the Virgin Queen. In 1585 a colony of 
one hundred was located on Roanoke Island. On account 
of the colonists' mistreatment of the Indians, the latter 
became very hostile. The situation grew critical. Starva- 
tion confronted them, and they were threatened with exter- 
mination by the savages, when they were happily rescued by 
Sir Francis Drake, who had stopped to see how his friend 
Raleigh's colony was prospering. He found them in such 
distress that he yielded to their request to be taken home. 



44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

These returning colonists are said to have been the first to 
introduce the use of tobacco into England. 

A final attempt was made in 1587 under the leadership of 
Governor John White. This time both men and women 
were sent. The outcome was tragic. After seeing them 
located at Roanoke, Governor "White returned for supplies. 
In England he found all was excitement over the report of 
the coming of the Spanish Armada. Every ship and every 
seaman was in demand. When, after an absence of three 
years, White returned, he could find no trace of the colony. 
It became known as "The Lost Colony." 

Disappointed and broken in fortune, Raleigh now 
relinquished his rights to others. Bancroft says: "The 
name of Raleigh stands greatest among the statesmen 
of England who advanced the colonization of the United 
States." He was courtier, soldier, colonizer, historian, 
poet. AYhen Queen Elizabeth died he fared ill with her 
successor, who imprisoned him in the Tower of London in 
1603 and released him in 1616, only to condemn him and 
execute him at the block two years later. 

42. Gosnold— 1602 ; Pring— 1603; Weymouth— 1605.— At 
the beginning of the century three voyages were made to 
the New World which excited great interest in England. 
In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold coasted Massachusetts, named 
Cape Cod, and sailed into Buzzards Bay. He named an 
island after his queen, and attempted to plant a colony 
there. He failed because none of his crew would consent to 
remain. Martin Pring visited the same coast the following 
year, returning laden with fish. Both Pring and Gosnold 
made favorable reports on the desirability of the New Eng- 
land coast as a place for settlement. George Weymouth 
followed up their explorations in 1605, entering and explor- 
ing many of the harbors along the coast of Maine and reach- 
ing as far south as the region visited by Gosnold three years 
before. 

These three voyages aroused the business centers of Eng- 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSIOl^^ 



45 



land. They served to stir the English mind as never before 
in its relation to the colonization of the New World. The 
voyages made to other parts of the Atlantic coast, particu- 
larly to the south, had demonstrated that fine harbors were 
not numerous. Gosnold, Pring, and Weymouth had explored 
in detail a sufficient number of harbors on the New Eng- 
land coast to shelter the navies and the merchant ships of 
the world. 

43. The Virginia Company — Plymouth: London — (1606). — 
As the sixteenth century closed and the seventeenth century 
opened, all the business centers of Europe became act- 
ively interested in the promo- 
tion of commercial enterprise. 
Trading companies, exploring 
companies, and companies in- 
terested ina greatvarietyof en- 
terprises, existed in Holland, 
France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, 
and England. England, where 
a broader idea of the rights 
of the individual had gained a 
foothold, was especially inter- 
ested in the organization of 
such companies. The year 
following the return of Wey- 
mouth, the now famous Vir- 
ginia Company was organized 
(1606) under a charter from the king. The original company 
soon subdivided into two companies — the London and the Ply- 
mouth. The members of the London Company lived in or near 
London ; those of Plymouth, in or near Plymouth. The com- 
panies were organized for the purpose of colonization and 
trade. 

The London Company, by the charter, was limited to 
the territory lying between the thirty-fourth and thirty- 
eighth degrees of north latitude; the Plymouth, to the 




] 31 P;A N V X .J" 




iRooTioke I. ^ 

\ 

PLYMOUrH 

AND 



LONDON GR/^ 
1606 



NTS, 



46 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES 

territory lying between the forty-first and forty-fifth degrees. 
Both extended westward without limit. The strip lying 
between the two grants was left open as a field of com- 
petition between the two companies, neither to make a 
settlement within a hundred miles of the other. The Ply- 
mouth Company made its first attempt at colonization on the 
coast of Maine in 1607. The colonists had settled too far 
north and the climate proved too severe for them. The 
following year, discouraged and heart-sick, they returned 
home. 

While the Plymouth Company failed, the London Com- 
pany succeeded. To it belongs the distinction of having 
planted the first permanent English colony on the shores of 
America. The Jamestown Colony, established in 1607, 
marks the beginning of that English colonization of the 
continent, which, during the next century and a half, was 
destined to spread and establish the supremacy of England 
in North America. The history of these English colonies, 
thirteen in all, stretching along a narrow strip of the Atlantic 
coast, constitutes the beginning of the history of the republic 
of the United States, and must be reserved foi a future 
chapter. 

SUMMARY 

44. Progress Made. — We have thus far followed the story 
of the western continent as revealed in the lives of the early 
explorers. 

From Columbus to Menendez and Espejo (1492-1582) is a 
long and bloody period of time. But during that period the 
Spaniard planted himself firmly in the West Indies, conquered 
Mexico, and the western coast of South America; and by an 
armed patrol maintained his right to Florida — the northern 
limit of which he placed at the North Pole. 

We have seen the Portuguese (1500-1502) limited to Brazil, 
and note with shame their development into the leading 
slave traders of the world. 



THE RACE FOR POSSESSIOX 47 

From Verrazano and Cartier to La Salle (1524-1687) we 
jire carried over more than a century and a half of history. 
But we behold the Frenchman in the van of the army of 
pioneers who conquered the vast interior wilderness of the 
continent. He has extended New France from a small set- 
tlement at Quebec, westward to the upper limits of the Great 
Lakes; thence southward to the Gulf of Mexico, through 
one of the richest and most productive valleys in the world. 

We have seen the Dutch under Henry Hudson (1609) 
sailing into the Hudson River, establishing the right of Hol- 
land to the New Netherlands in America and plying their 
trade along that river and the coasts of Long Island Sound. 

From the Cabots to the Jamestown colony (1497-1607) we 
note a long line of disasters for England. But we are 
til rilled by the promise that it is reserved to her to sow on 
this new soil the seeds of individual liberty, which, taking 
deep root, shall blossom forth into the thirteen original 
colonies and later reach fruition in the greatest attempt at 
self-government the human mind has ever conceived — the 
United States of America. 

45. Conflicting Claims. — We thus see, as we narrow our- 
selves to the territory occupied by the present boundaries of 
the United States, that there were conflicting claims to this 
territory. These conflicts, leading to endless trouble in later 
years, were settled only by appeal to the sword. Let us note 
carefully the claims of the contending nations: 

Spain laid claim to the eastern coast of the United States 
under the name of Florida, and the Pacific coast under the 
name of New Mexico. 

The French laid claim to Canada and the Mississippi 
valley. 

The Dutch claimed the cerritory lying between Narra- 
.gansett Bay and the Delaware River. 

The English, by right of discovery and occupation, pro- 
ceeded to hold the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida, thence 
westward to the Pacific. 



48 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Before taking up the story of the English colonies in the 
New World it is well that we should take a glance at the 
Continent of North America and learn something of it? 
native inhabitant, who confronted the early settler at every 
step, and, with dogged resistance, disputed the right of 
the European to encroach upon his territory. 



CHAPTER III 

THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 

1492-1902 

46. North America. — The word "continent" is here used 
to designate a body of land, whether large or small, having 
on one side a primary axis — a high mountain range, — and on 
the other a secondary axis — a low mountain range, — with a 
broad plain or valley between them. Thus North America 
taken by itself is a continent. Its primary axis is the Rocky 
Mountain range, taken together with its related ranges and 
the plateau upon which this upheaval rests, which extends 
from Alaska to the Isthmus of Panama. Its secondary axis 
is the Appalachian range and the tableland upon which it 
rests, which extends from the plateau of Labrador to the 
hills of northern Georgia. The great central plain of North 
America lies between these two highlands and extends from 
the Arctic Sea to the Gulf of Mexico. 

47. The United States. — That portion of the continent 
lying within the boundaries of the republic partakes of the 
physical characteristics of the whole continent. On the east 
are the Atlantic slope and coastal plain ; on the west, the 
Pacific slope ; and in the interior, the great central plain. 

THE ATLAN"TIC PLAIlsT 

Looking outward upon the ocean with its fine harbors and 
bays, the Atlantic plain lay stretched out as a perpetual invi- 
tation to Europe to plant colonies upon its coasts and along 
the courses of its numerous streams. This narrow strip of 
territory, scarcely more than one hundred and fifty miles 

49 



50 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




STRUCTURAL MAP OF NORTH AMERICA 



THE CONTIXENT AND THE INDIAN" 51 

wide at its greatest stretch, was destined, on account of its 
geographical position, to become the home of the thirteen 
English colonies and the "cradle of the republic." Bound 
to the coast by their desire for intercommunication and com- 
merce, and held back from the interior by the continuous 
Appalachian range and the^savage tribes which it harbored, 
the English settlements became compact and numerous. 
And thus was developed, from New England to Georgia, 
that bond of sympathy and community of interest which 
gave birth to that confidence which in later years led 
the English colonists up the historic valleys of the 
Hudson and the Mohawk, the Delaware and the Sus- 
quehanna, the Potomac and the James, — into the lake 
region of the north and the great interior valley of the con- 
tinent — to wrest from France her vast colonial possessions. 
And thus, too, in that narrow strip was developed that love 
of liberty, and that confidence in "government of the people, 
by the people, and for the people" which led the colonists to 
bid defiance to the despotism of King George III. and to 
publish to the world their Declaration of Independence. 

THE PACIFIC SLOPE 

The Pacific slope extends westward from the crest of the 
Rocky Mountain range through the elevated plateau known 
as the Great Basin ; then, rising into the lofty peaks of the 
Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges, it descends abruptly to 
the Pacific coast. It is pierced by the Columbia and the 
Colorado rivers, — each of historic interest in the develop- 
ment of that section of our country. Unlike the Atlantic, 
the Pacific coastal plain has but few streams and its coasts 
present but few harbors. 

THE CENTRAL PLAIN 

The great central plain with its vast network of streams 
reaches from the crest of the Appalachian Mountains to the 
crest of the Rockies, and sweeps downward to the Gulf of 



52 HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 

Mexico from the low watershed at the head of the Great Lake 
system. This whole interior basin is drained eastward to the 
Atlantic through the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence 
River ; and southward to the Gulf of Mexico by the greatest 
river system in the world — the Mississippi. To this vast 
interior region France fell heir through the discovery by 
Cartier, of the mouth of the St. Lawrence; and by La Salle, 
of the mouth of the Mississippi. A study of the natural 
boundaries of this region will show how extensive was 
the territory which France set about to occupy. In her 
attempt to hold and develop it she failed. In proportion 
to the amount of means and energy which 'she was able to 
put into the business of colonization, the territory was, in 
geographical extent, far beyond her capabilities. Had 
France been limited by natural geographical boundaries to 
a smaller area, as the English were, she might have fared 
better. Geography aids us in the conclusion that, at best, 
France was but a pioneer in the great wilderness, preparing 
the way for the oncoming of the young republic which had 
its birth amidst the closely compacted settlements east of the 
Alleghanies. 

Thus we see one must understand the geography of a coun- 
try if he would understand its history. Climate and topog- 
raphy have greatly influenced the history of the human 
family. Natural geographical boundaries have usually deter- 
mined the limits of nations. "Geography determines his- 
tory." 

48. The Indian and His Treatment by His Conquerors. — 
When Columbus first landed he was greeted by human 
beings. Believing he was in the East Indies, he called 
the natives Indians — a name which they have carried with 
them over the stretch of more than four centuries of 
stirring history. 

In that history the "Red Man" plays a conspicuous and 
melancholy part. He greeted the Spaniard with stubborn 
resistance in Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Porto Rico. He 



THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 



53 



waged unequal battle with him when Montezuma and his 
Aztecs fell. He met him in southern Mexico and Central 
America, in Bolivia and Chili, and gave up his life rather 
than submit to Spanish rule. In less than a half century the 
Spaniard had swept from San 
Salvador to Tierra del Fuego 
and the mouth of the La 
Platte River, and wherever he 
went the "blood of the slain" 
cried out against his cruel tyr- 
anny. Turning to the north, 
the Spaniard met the In- 
dian in California, in Kansas, 
in Florida, along the course 
of the Mississippi, on the 
shores of the Carolinas, and 
in Virginia, and everywhere 
meted out to him the same 
cruel and heartless treatment. 

The French and the Dutch 
traded with him on the Hud- 
son River and Long Island 
Sound. The Huguenots made 
friends with him in Florida 
and the Carolinas. Cartier 

found him on the shores of the St. Lawrence ; Champlain, on 
Lake Champlain, and in the interior of- New York. Along 
the shores of the Great Lakes the French trader and the 
Jesuit missionary became his companion and spiritual adviser. 
They met him everywhere along the streams of the interior 
and the courses of the Great River; and, floating past the 
spot where De Soto had first looked upon the Mississippi, 
they were guided to its mouth by an Indian pilot. The 
treatment of the Indian by the French and the Dutch was 
more humane than that of the Spanish. 

The English, too, came in contact with this child of the for- 




54 HISTORY OF THE Uis^ITED STATES 

est. The Cabots were the first to meet him on the coasts of 
the northern continent. Frobisher encountered him in the icy 
regions of the Arctic coast and mistook his yellow clay for 
gold. Ealeigh's colonists met him in Virginia; Gosnold 
and Pring and Weymouth were cordially greeted by the 
natives along the New England coast. Like the French and 
the Dutch, the English anxiously cultivated the friendship 
of the Indian. The conquest of New England, though 
marked by some fierce struggles with tribes which refused 
to be at peace, was on the whole a peaceful conquest. And 
this statement applies with almost equal force to all the 
English colonies. 

49. The Whole Continent Peopled by the Natives. — \Yhen in 
the nineteenth century the region west of the Mississippi was 
explored, the Indian was found in every section of North 
America, even as far north as the Arctic coast. The truth 
was then fully established that the whole of North and South 
America had been peopled by native tribes, perhaps centuries 
before Columbus saw the New AVorld. The population in 
North America north of the Rio Grande River probably 
did not, in the time of Columbus, exceed one million souls 
— of whom three hundred thousand were within the present 
limits of the United States. In the West Indies, Mexico, 
Central America, and the South American countries there 
was a denser population. Many of the southern tribes were 
semi-civilized, while those of the United States and farther 
north were barbarous. 

50. Distribution in the United States in 1492. — Based on 
a study of their languages, the Indians of the United States 
have been divided into fifty-seven family groups, ranging 
from a single village to over six hundred tribes in a group. 
Those east of the Mississippi were divided into three great 
tribal families. 

(1) The Algonkin tribes occupied the Atlantic coastal 
plain from the Savannah River northward ; and the Missis- 
sippi valley, from the Great Lakes to the Tennessee River. 



THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAIf 55 

They also spread over Newfoundland and Labrador and 
reached westward in Canada to the Rocky Mountains. They 
spoke a related language and lived by hunting and fishing, 
paying but slight attention to agriculture. One strong tribe, 
the Delaware — said to be the parent stock of the Algonkins 
— occupied the region from the Chesapeake Bay to the head- 
waters of the Ohio River. There were about six hundred of 
the Algonkin tribes, most of them rude and warlike. It 
was with the Algonkin the English and French settlers first 
contended. The latter won their friendship; the former, 
with but one notable exception — in Pennsylvania — their 
enmity. 

(2) In the north the Iroquoian family occupied the region 
of central New York, both banks of the St. Lawrence, and 
the shores of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. In the south 
they held a portion of the Carolinas under the tribal name 
of the Tuscaroras. Those in New York state bound them- 
selves for purpose of defence and conquest into the famous 
Iroquois Confederacy known in history as the Five 
Nations — the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and 
Senecas constituting the Confederacy. After 1715 they 
were joined by the Tuscaroras, and became the Six Nations 
of our colonial history. They were not numerous, but on 
account of their skill in the use of their rude weapons of war 
they made the name of the Iroquois feared and respected 
from the Lakes to the Gulf. A¥hen taught the use of fire- 
arms by the European settler they practically dominated the 
whole of the Indian population in the central and eastern 
portion of the republic. Through a blunder of Champlain, 
the French secured their lasting enmity. They were gen- 
erally friendly to the English, and in the Revolutionary 
War all the tribes except the Oneidas fought against the 
American colonists. 

(3) The Mobilian, or Muskhogean family occupied the 
region south of the Tennessee and Savannah rivers to the 
Gulf, They became tillers of the soil and were less warlike 



56 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

than the northern tribes. Tliey, however, in later years 
gave the government of the United States much trouble until 
finally induced to move into the "Indian Country" west of 
the Mississippi. 

In the western couutry roamed the great hunting tribes 
of the Sioux. Fierce and warlike, they had even dared 
to wage war with the Algonkin and the Iroquois for the 
occupancy of the Oarolinas, and had successfully planted 
their villages on the Atlantic coast. Still further west was 
the Shoshonean family occupying the Rocky Mountain region 
and the Great Basin to its west, with the half-civilized 
Pueblos and cliff dwellers on their south. 

On the Pacific were the numerous Californian families, 
comprising the most closely compacted Indian settlements in 
North America. 

The tribes of each family group spoke the same stock 
language, though with such variations that the Algonkin on 
the Tennessee could not understand the Algonkin in New- 
foundland; nor the Sioux in the Carolinas communicate 
with the Sioux of the Black Hills. At the time of the 
arrival of the European, too, the boundaries to the territory 
occupied by each family group were fairly well defined and 
in the main respected. 

51. The Tribe of the Alleghans; The Mound Builders.— 
This tribe has given its name to the Alleghany River and the 
Alleghany Mountains. The Alleghan tribe is the oldest 
tribe in the United States of which there is any tradition — 
it is believed they belonged to the early Iroquoian stock. 
The AUeghans were perhaps the first occupants of the Ohio 
valley, the builders of many of the curious Indian mounds 
found in that region. The other tribes inhabiting this region 
were also mound builders. Judging from the remains which 
they have left, they were an agricultural people and lived in 
fixed towns. The mound builders of the Ohio and Mis- 
sissippi valleys were conquered and driven from their domain 
by a combination of the Delaware and Iroquois tribes. 



THE CONTII^'ENT AND THE INDIAN 57 

Defeated, they retired south of the Ohio and finally made 
their permanent settlement in the region of the Gulf states. 
The Cherokee Indians are descended from them. The 
Cherokees are now one of the "five civilized tribes" in 
the Indian Territory. The old theory of a prehistoric 
race of mound builders in North America, whose peoples 
had attained to an advanced stage of civilization, and who 
were conquered and exterminated by cruel savage tribes, 
is rapidly becoming a myth. 

52. The Red Man. — As the Indians appear to us now they 
doubtless appeared to the early colonists — a race of men, 



EARTHEN JARS OR BOWLS 



erect and powerful; with reddish or copper-colored skin; 
coarse, black hair; deep-set black eyes; and full, smooth 
faces — made prominent by high cheek bones, broad, fiat 
foreheads, heavy jaws, and full lips ; in stature, the men of 
average height; the women shorter, and inclined to stout- 
ness — both having small hands and feet. 

They were hunters and fishers and rude tillers of the soil. 
They lived upon the fruits of the chase, and were fond of 
fish and oysters. They raised Indian corn, potatoes, beans, 
and pumpkins, and gave the European his first knowledge 



58 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the potato, corn, and tobacco plant. The Indian was an 
inveterate smoker, and his "peace pipe" has become a fixed 
figure in our literature. 

He prepared his food in rude earthen jars or bowls, in 




EIRCII-BAKK VESSELS 



huge kettles and in birch-bark vessels, boiling the water by 
dropping in heated stones. 

He was swift in the chase and unsurpassed in his use of 
the canoe. He had a quick ear and a keen eye, and could 
track his prey or his foe through the forest and across the 
prairie with unerring accuracy. He could imitate the songs 
of birds and the cry of animals — deceiving man, and beast 
as well. 

In war, though the bravest of the brave, the Indian never 
fought in the open, unless forced by his foe. He approached 

by stealth, — in the dark- 
^'^^^^====='=====^=====^i^:ss^^^S>' ness of the night or 

under cover of the am- 
bush, — and with his 
war-whoop and uplifted 
tomahawk perpetrated indiscriminate slaughter. His imple- 
ments of war were rude, but with his flint-tipped arrow and 
his rude stone tomahawk he fought bravely against the 
invading white man. 

The dwellings of the Indians ranged from the rude hut 



FLIXT-TIPI'ED ARROWS 



THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 



59 



and the typical circular cone-shaped wigwam of the prairie 
and forest tribes, to the longhouse of the Iroquois and the 
canopy tent — shaped like a mover's wagon — of the more 
settled Algonkin tribes. In the far southwest, where 
there was little rainfall, they built their adobe houses of 
sun-dried brick, or, like the "cliff dwellers," carved their 
homes from out the precipitous cliffs. 

They were clothed scantily in the summer time, and 
wore dressed skins of animals in the winter. On gala days 




they were bedecked with gay feathers, bedaubed with paint, 
and arrayed in the gaudiest colors. 

They were wild lovers of liberty and had an intolerance of 
control. In the village and the field the Indian squaw did 
the household and field labor while her lord reserved him- 
self for the chase and for war. 

The Indian had his virtues and his vices. He was a hero- 
worshiper and reverenced the sages and heroes of his tribe. 



60 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



He was brave — none braver — ambitious and generous and 
eloquent in defence of his rights. Yet he was cautious to 
the point of cowardice, and held revenge to be an honor and 
a duty. He was suspicious and jealous. He was a wor- 
shiper of nature. A wild animal, a bird, the sun, the voice 
of a Niagara, and all manner of living things and inanimate 




INDIAN WAR CLUBS 



objects became his gods. He worshiped both a ''Great 
Spirit" and an "Evil Spirit" — the latter because it was 
wicked and he feared it might do him harm. 

He yielded authority only to the tribal will, and his 
tenacious — almost devout — belief in the tribal organization 
as a form of political government has retarded his progress 
more than all other causes. 

He was indeed but a "child" of the forest. He has been 
one of the vexed problems of the republic. Even after cen- 
turies of effort, civilization has laid but little hold upon 
him. He "quickly learned to use the white man's musket"; 
but he has been slow "to use the tools of the white man's 
industry." He often developed an uncontrollable appetite 
for intoxicating drinks, — the habit many times proving his 
undoing. 

63. Where Is the Indian Now?— The Indian has not been 



THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 61 

exterminated. The erroneous belief that at the time of 
discovery the United States held a population of sixteen 
million Indians has been dispelled in recent years. It 
is now thought that this population at the time of discovery 
did not exceed three hundred thousand souls. The census 
of 1900 shows an equal number of Indians still living within 
the borders of the republic. 

During the period from Washington to Roosevelt the 
government has expended — for purchase of Indian lands, for 
Indian education and support, a total of nearly four hundred 
millions of dollars. For the year 1901 an appropriation of 
nearly nine millions was made by Congress. 

In 1823, all the Indians east of the Mississippi, 
excepting those of New York and some small tribes of 
'the Atlantic states, were by treaty removed to the Indian 
country west of the Mississippi — and to reservations to 
be located thereafter by the government. This Indian 
country has narrowed down in the present day to the 
Indian Territory, occupied by the "five civilized tribes" 
— comprising the Seminole Indians, and the Creek, Cherokee, 
Chicasaw, and Choctaw nations — and to a few reserva- 
tions in the territory of Oklahoma. 

East of the Mississippi there are but two notable reserva- 
tions — in the states of New York and Wisconsin ; while each 
state and territory west of the Mississippi, excepting Mis- 
souri, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas, has one or more 
Indian reservations within its borders. These reservations 
are under the control of the Interior Department at Wash- 
ington. Schools have been established on all, and in 1900 
more than twenty thousand Indian children were in daily 
attendance upon these schools. In order to bring the 
Indian more closely under the influences of civilization, the 
•government has established more than a hundred boarding 
schools in the very midst of white communities. The 
largest of these are Carlisle (Pennsylvania), Haskell Institute 
(Lawrence, Kansas), and Phoenix (Arizona). In these 



62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

boarding schools are enrolled four or five thousand of the 
best young men and women from the Indian tribes of the 
country. 

54. Present Government Policy: Allotment Act: The Indian's 
Future. — The government has tried many experiments and 
plans in dealing with the Indian — some good, some bad. 
No Congress of the United States has ever convened without 
passing some "Indian legislation" and making an appropria- 
tion. There are those who insist that, after a century of 
dealing with the problem, **the United States has failed 
with the Indian." However, this failure is only an appar- 
ent one. The government is now rapidly abandoning its 
reservation system and substituting therefor the present 
Indian policy of the republic — *'To fit the Indian for civili- 
zation and to absorb him into it." The education of the 
Indian youth on one hand, and the allotment of home- 
steads to their elders on the other, are silently working their 
way. The Allotment Act passed by Congress in 1887 has 
sealed the doom of the reservation policy. It is breaking up 
the tribe as a social and political unit and placing in its 
stead the family — with its father, mother, and children con- 
stituting an Indian home — upon which a civilization can be 
built. In a few years, under this policy, the tribal 
authority will become extinct and thousands of indus- 
trious Indian households will be absorbed into the citizen- 
ship of the republic. 




CHAPTER IV 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 



56. England. — England had responded readily to the ne^w 
movement brought about by the revival of learning and her 
people had rapidly taken rank among the most intelligent 
in Europe. The great religious Reformation had quickened the 
intellectual life of the island kingdom, and made her people 
God-fearing and liberty-loving. Her rulers, however, held 
tenaciously to the belief in the "divine right of kings," and 
through their tyrauny and misgovernmeiit there was gradu- 
ally developed in the English heart a belief in the "divine 
right of the people." At first a mere belief — a feeble conten- 
tion against the injustices of her monarchs — it later became 
a fixed conviction of the English nation — rising both at home 
and in the American colonies to the dignity of an emphatic 
protest against the usurpations of kings. 

56. The Reign of the Stuarts— 1603-1714.— When Elizabeth 
died in 1603 there came into power the sovereigns of the 
House of Stuart — who held sway during one of the most 
exciting centuries in the history of England — a century 
of bitter strife between people and monarchs, in which 
the former triumphed only after much shedding of blood. 
During its progress one king yielded up his life on the 
block ; another was driven from his throne. In their wrath 
at the despotism of the first Charles, parliament overthrew 
the monarchy and set up the Commonwealth, which later 
gave way to the Protectorate of Cromwell. Then tiring of 
the dissension bred by religious and political differences the 
people restored the Stuarts to power and for nearly a third 

63 



64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of a century tolerated their despotic rule. Finally in another 
burst of wrath they drove the last of the Stuart despots into 
France, and under William III, and Queen Mary established 
firmly the constitutional monarchy — the beginning of the 
England of to-day. 

Of the Staarts, James I. ruled from 1603 to 1625, and 
Charles I. from 1625 to 1649. When the latter was be- 
headed, the Commonwealth was set up, continuing from 1640 
to 1653, when it was followed by the Protectorate. In 1660 
the Restoration placed Charles 11. on the throne, which 
he occupied until 1685. His successor, James II., ruling 
from 1685 to 1688, was driven from the throne, where- 
upon the Dutch prince, William of Orange, and Mary, the 
daughter of the banished king, ruled from 1688 to" 1694, 
and William alone to 1702. Queen Anne ruled from 1702 to 
1714. From Elizabeth to Anne marks a little more than a 
century of history. AVithin that century all of the thirteen 
original colonies but Georgia (1733) were settled. The 
religious persecutions of the Stuart rulers hastened the 
growth of the English colonies in the New World — many 
thousands of liberty-loving Englishmen having fled from 
their homes to join their brothers in America. 

57. The First English Settlement in America, however, was 
due to business enterprise and not to persecution. At the 
beginning of the seventeenth century England was enjoying 
a period of peace, and many soldiers had returned home. 
Work had to be provided for them. A change had taken 
place in the methods and products of the farm. Increased 
facilities for the manufacture of woolen goods had made such 
a demand for that article that laiulowners in England had 
turned field into pasture. The raising of sheep required 
fewer laborers on the farm and this added to the over- 
crowding of the labor market. An outlet was necessary 
and America with her boundless possibilities seemed pro- 
vided for the occasion. Raleigh, Pring, Gosnold, and 
Weymouth had opened the way and the London Com- 



THE COMIXG OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 05 

pany, as a purely business enterprise, planted the James- 
town colony. 

VIKGINIA 

58. Jamestown. — Fifty miles from tlie mouth of the 
James Eiver stand the ruins of a church, all that is left of 
Jamestown, the first suc- 















JAMESTO^\^ AND MCIMTY 



cessful English settle- 
ment in America. It was 
founded in May, 1607, 
by one hundred and five 
colonists sent out by the 
London Company under 
the leadership of Captain 
Newport. A much more 
healthful location might 
have been found, for it 
was then, as now, surrounded by swamps and marshes. But 
the trip across the Atlantic had been a long and stormy one ; 
and the voyagers, eager to end the discomforts of ship life, 
did not deliberate long upon their landing — they hastily 
selected a site and stepped upon the shores of the New 
World. 

59. The First Charter. — The first charter, though fixing 
the limits of the territory to be occupied by the London 
Company, granted no special rights to these first colonists. 
They were to be governed from London and the results of 
their labor were to be held in common. It was, however, 
conceded that they should have "all the rights and privileges 
of Englishmen," — a phrase of vague meaning then, though 
destined in later years to form the basis of the claim made 
good on the hard-fought battlefields of the Revolution. 

60. Character of the Colonists. — The success of a colony 
depends on the character of the colonists. They should be 
men who wish to make homes in the new land, and are 
willing to work. They should know what the resources of 
the country are, and be willing to develop them. The first 



66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

colonists of Virginia were not at all this sort of men. A 
majority of them were "gentlemen," utterly unsiiited for 
the work in hand; not only that, they were a positive 
clog on the few who were of use. The early idea of the 
Spaniard had obtained a strong hold on them, and they 
spent their time in a fruitless search for gold. The summer 
thus wasted, the autumn brought no harvest, and they 
entered upon their first winter with scant provision and in 
miserable health. 

61. Captain John Smith. — The Moses to lead them out 
of this plight appeared in the person of Captain John Smith. 
Much there is, no doubt, of romantic fancy in this character, 
yet were it all taken away, there remains enough of truth to 
stamp him an extraordinary man. John Smith had been 
made one of the "Council" for the colony, but on the way 
out had offended some of the leaders and had been placed in 
chains. He was released at the end of the voyage and for 
the first few months seems to have employed his time in a 
thorough exploration of the country, of which he made 
many excellent maps. Taken prisoner by Powhatan the 
story runs that the death sentence was about to be inflicted 
when Pocahontas, the little daughter of the chief, interceded 
in his behalf and saved his life. Whether fact or fancy, 
Pocahontas did many little deeds of kindness for the suffer- 
ing colonists during that first winter, and was the means of 
bringing about a better understanding between the colonists 
and the Indians. When grown to womanhood she married 
John Kolfe, one of the settlers, who took her on a visit to 
England. She was the object there of much attention by 
the nobility, and was feted and feasted on every hand. 
Many of the early Virginians claimed descent from her. 

Under Smith's leadership, the colonists were organized 
into working bands, sanitary measures were enforced, and the 
friendship of the Indians cultivated. By these means they 
were kept alive until aid arrived from England. Smith 
remained with the colonists for two years, returning to 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 67 

England in 1G09. Several years later he explored and 
mapped the coast of New England, naming many of its 
capes and bays. The Pilgrims, before setting sail in the 
Mayflower (1620) for the "rock-bound" coast of Massachu- 
setts, availed themselves of a copy of this map, and landed at 
a point which Smith had named Plymouth. 

62. The Light Almost Out — Lord Delaware Rekindles 
It. — On the departure of Smith, the colonists, who now 
numbered nearly five hundred, began their old career of idle- 
ness, bickering with the Indian, and quarreling among them- 
selves. This could have but one result; the winter which 
followed was one of wretchedness and despair, and the spring 
found but a band of sixty of the strongest, surviving. These 
had already made preparation for a return to England, when 
the new governor, Lord Delaware, sailed into the river with 
shiploads of supplies and more colonists. 

63. The Second and Third Charters. — Two years after the 
first charter was granted, another was secured of the king. 
The only important change was in creating the office of gov- 
ernor, and in giving him, instead of the Council, authority 
over the colonists. In 1(312 a third charter was obtained. 
Heretofore the affairs of the colony had been administered 
by a board in London. This board was now abolished and 
the stockholders of the company put in control. The 
change affected the individual colonist but little. Erom 
this time, however, the colony, as a whole, improved. 

64. Communism a Failure. — "All things in common" is 
very well in theory, but its successful practice requires ideal 
conditions. These were not present in the Jamestown col- 
ony. Many of the colonists were vicious idlers and jailbirds, 
picked up on the streets of Loudon. To such persons, "All 
things in common" meant, "Put in as little as possible; get 
out as much as you can." Lord Delaware being in broken 
health, soon returned to England, and Sir Thomas Dale was 
appointed governor. Dale was brutally rigorous in his dis- 
cipline. His gospel was law and order. A whipping-post 



68 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



was established for the punishment of offenders; he impris- 
oned them ; he pat them in stocks. But he brought order out 
of chaos, and he placed the colony once more on a working 
basis. He did away with communism. Each person was 
required to deposit two and a half barrels of corn in the com- 
mon store-house once a year, but all over that was private 
property. The "starving time" was a thing of the past. 

65. Tobacco and Its Influence on the Life of the Colonists. 
So far the Virginia colony had not been successful. Why? 

AVas it impossible for people 
to grow rich and prosperous 
in Virginia, or had they not 
yetdiscovered where the true 
riches of the country lay? 
In order to answer these 
questions we shall have to 
examine more carefully the 
geography, climate and soil 
of this part of the Atlantic 
coast. If you look at a map 
of A'irginia, you will see a 
low. Hat country, crossed by 
many broad, sluggish rivers. 
The coast is low and marshy 
and guarded by long sandy 
islands, so there are few 
good harbors. The ocean tides run many miles up the rivers, 
forming estuaries, and the ships float up with the tides to 
some point at the head of the tide water, instead of stopping 
at a harbor on the coast. The climate of Virginia is mild 
and equable. The soil is deep and fertile, and in it the 
tobacco plant grows luxuriantly. The people of England 
were just beginning to use tobacco, and were willing to pay 
a high price for it. The "tobacco habit" rapidly became 
general, and by tlie dawn of the seventeenth century tobacco 
had become a regular article of commerce. The manner of 





l^^^^'i.. 






;.%-'-" ■■ -'' 


' '• '^ \ 


"v "'"'t ^^ , ' _,: 


^■-■v- -■- -^ -'•• 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 69 

its handling facilitates an easy exchange and it retains its 
merchantable quality for long periods. These points com- 
bined to make it a popular crop in Virginia. 

66. Indentured Servants and the Development of the 
"Poor White." — White slavery was countenanced in English 
society at this time — not that of absolute ownership, but of a 
financial character. Persons in debt were required to give 
their labor to their creditor until the debt was discharged. 
A free person could sell his labor in advance. This made 
the buyer his owner for that period. A common method 
among the very poor to secure passage to the New World 
was to sell, or "indenture," themselves to persons of means 
who expected to settle there. As their term of service 
expired, these indentured servants found themselves in a new 
land, with nothing but their labor to sell, and that practically 
worthless because the landed class was supplied either with 
the indentured slave or the absolute slave, the negro. 
Having no means to buy land, he depended on the scant 
charity of the planter classes and became the progenitor of 
that despised element known as the "poor white." 

67. A Cloud. — A thrifty Dutch sea captain anchored in 
James Kiver one day in 1619 and left part of his cargo, 
twenty negro slaves. In 1861, at the beginning of our Civil 
War, there were nearly four millions of negro slaves within 
the borders of the republic. Like all new departures, the 
system of slave labor was a growth. It was distinctly unpop- 
ular at first. But it was soon found that the negro was spe- 

' cially adapted to the culture of the tobacco plant, and as that 
staple increased in value, the colonists' repugnance to slavery 
decreased. 

68. Beginnings of the Republic. — The successful cultiva- 
tion of tobacco required large tracts of land and many 

* laborers. So each planter lived with his family, his 
' indentured servants or his slaves, on a great estate or 
' plantation. When the tobacco crop was ready to ship, he 
' took it to the wharf on the bank of the river which ran 



70 



HISTORY OF THE U2TITED STATES 



through his plantation and loaded it on his ships, which 
took it to England. When the ships returned they brought 
the planter all the manufactured articles he needed. Since 
each man traded directly with England, no towns, and very 
few cities, sprang up in Virginia; for towns depend for their 
existence on trade and manufacturing. The smallest polit- 




BACK VIEW OF VIRGINIA MANSION SHOWING SLAVE QXTARTEBS 



ical divisions in Virginia, therefore, were the counties, and 
at the county court-house the planters met at stated times 
to help govern the colony. 

In 1619 Sir George Yeardley, a man of liberal ideas, was 
appointed governor, and in that same year he instituted 
representative government, the colonists meeting in the 
first Representative Assembly in America. They were to 
"have power to make and ordaine whatsoever laws and 
orders shoulde by them be thought good and profit- 
able for their subsistence." In 1021 this "power" was 
embodied in a written constitution which granted among 
other privileges the right to elect their own representatives 
and the right of trial by jury. This marked the beginnings 
of the republic. 

69. Indian Massacres of 1622 and 1644. — His early ill- 
treatment by the Avhites only served to intensify in the 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 71 

Indian his naturally suspicious and revengeful nature. The 
wise policy of John Smith, with the consequent friendliness 
of Powhatan, leader of a confederation of clans numbering 
eight thousand, had continued to have a restraining influence, 
even after the death of that chieftain. So that, except in 
isolated cases, peace had prevailed. But in 1622 the settler 
was rudely awakened from his fancied security. On March 22 
a massacre, planned with shrewd cunning, was started along 
a line of settlements one hundred and forty miles in extent. 
The plot had included Jamestown, but an Indian warned a 
friend there in time to put the people on their guard, and 
they were saved. Some three hundred men, women, and 
children were cruelly put to death before the ravages of the 
Indians could be checked. Vigorous measures were at once 
adopted to punish the Indians. They were driven from point 
to point, and their villages and crops laid waste. But it 
cost the colonists a third of their number. Peace reigned 
for twenty-two years, when the Indians again attempted to 
exterminate the whites. But this time they were so thor- 
oughly punished that there was never again a general 
uprising in Virginia. 

70, The Charter Revoked. — The growth of the Virginia 
colony had now reached a point at which it began to be a 
matter of public moment. In 1G19 its friends in parlia- 
ment were strong enough to secure the appointment of 
Yeardley and the institution of the reforms he inaugurated. 
The House of Burgesses, the first popular constitutional 
body in the colonies, was established in this year. But 
the democratic tendency of these reforms was particularly 
obnoxious to King James I. He was exceedingly jealous 
of his rights, and feared the outcome of this liberal 
spirit. He therefore took occasion to pick a quarrel with 
the stockholders. He used the result of the Indian massacre 
lis the basis of a charge that they were unable to give proper 
protection to the colonists, and shrewdly threw the contest 
into the courts, where, the judges being under his control, 



72 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the charge against the stockholders was sustained. The char- 
ter was at once revoked and a royal governor was appointed 
by the king, but the attention of the king being required at 
home, no further disturbance of conditions occurred. 

71. Two Types — Berkeley and Bacon. — Aside from the his- 
torical interest connected with the acts of Sir William 
Berkeley and Nathaniel Bacon, they may each be taken to 
represent distinct types among the colonists. These types, 
developing early, gradually enrolled the adherents of mon- 
archial rule on the one side, while on the other were gathered 
those of democratic tendencies. The contest between them 
culminated in the Revolution. 

After the charter was revoked in 1624, the king appointed 
the governors who, in conjunction with the House of Bur- 
gesses, ruled the colony. Naturally, these men were in 
sympathy with the policies of the appointing power. Their 
rule was arbitrary in the degree that English home-rule 
was arbitrary. 

72. Sir William Berkeley was appointed governor in 1644. 
James I. had died, and Charles I., even more insistent of 
*'kingly rights" than his predecessor, was on the thix)ne. 
Berkeley was most zealous in the cause of his master, 
and soon was at swords' points with the Virginia House 
of Burgesses and the people. That he did not lose his 
head on account of his tyrannical rule, as did his royal 
master, was largely due to the lack of a leader and the 
forbearance of the people. He was recalled in^ 1651, but 
on the accession of Charles II. was again appointed 
governor by the Virginia Assembly. He proved a fit tool 
for that erratic monarch, for, although the colonists had been 
loyal to the Crown during the period of the Commonwealth, 
that did not deter Berkeley in the course of oppression 
he immediately adopted in relation to Virginia. For the 
purpose of increasing the revenues, he ordered a rigorous 
enforcement of the Navigation Act (1651), whicli made it 
obligatory to ship all products to England in English ves- 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 73 

sels. All purchases for the colonies were to pass through 
English ports, and to be brought over in English ships. 
This lowered the price of what they' had to sell and raised 
the price of that which they wished to buy. On his part, 
Berkeley secured the election of a House of Burgesses com- 
posed in great part of royalists. In conjunction with these, 
he levied exorbitant taxes, restricted the suffrage to '*land- 
owners and housekeepers," and passed oppressive laws con- 
cerning church attendance. He ignored the rights of the 
people by continuing this same House for sixteen years with- 
out an election — simply adjourning it from year to year. As 
years passed, this policy resulted in a feeling of discontent 
among the people, and when in 1673 the king, in disregard of 
the sacred rights of the colonists, actually gave to two of his 
court favorites the whole of Virginia, this discontent 
increased to the point of insurrection. It "needed but a 
leader and a moving cause — the former was present in the 
person of Nathaniel Bacon ; the latter in the person of the 
restive Algonkin savage on the frontier. 

73. Nathaniel Bacon was a young lawyer who had suffered 
with the people. He knew their trials ; he also knew their 
rights as Englishmen, and dared to maintain them. For sev- 
eral years the Indians had been committing depredations on 
the border. Berkeley had been importuned to suppress them 
by ordering out the militia, but, fearing lest they turn on him, 
he had refused. Finally, the people assembled and elected 
young Bacon commander, yet Berkeley refused him a com- 
mission and declared him a rebel. Bacon and his followers, 
however, defeated the Indians, and later drove Berkeley and 
his adherents on board ship, where they were kept prisoners 
until certain reforms were agreed to. But when quiet was 
restored, the royalists refused to carry out the reforms. 
Bacon and his men, many of whom were owners of property 
in Jamestown, now resolved on heroic measures. They 
drove the royalists out of Jamestown and burned it to the 
ground, many setting the torch to their own homes. 



74 HISTORY OF THE UXITElJ STATES 

"Williamsburg was made the seat of government by the suc- 
cessful colonists. The rebellion was at its height when the 
leader fell ill of a fever and died — and with him died the 
revolt. Berkeley, regaining control of the government, 
visited terrible retribution on those engaged in the rebellion. 
He hanged a large number, imprisoned others and confiscated 
the property of all the leaders. So severe was he that the 
king himself in a burst of impatience declared that Berkeley 
had taken more lives in that- naked country than he himself 
had for the murder of his father. 

MASSACHUSETTS — THE PLYMOUTH COLONY 

PLY310UTH, 16-JO 

74. The Plymouth Company. — On the failure of the first 
attempt of the Plymouth Company in 1607 on the coast of 
Maine, the members became involved in a controversy as 
to management, and nothing further was done until after 
reorganization of the Company in 1620. It then became 
known as the "Council for New England." 

75. Religious Awakening of the Sixteenth Century. — If 
the times are propitious, any reform, as it proceeds, gathers 
strength from causes without, as well as within, itself. 
Luther's protest in 1517 became a great religious awakening, 
and in time changed the established lines of religious 
thought. Its success was enhanced by the fact that an 
awakening was also in progress in educational, scientific, 
and all other lines of thought. In England the movement 
resulted in the establishment of the Church of England, 
whose ritual retained much of the formal method of wor- 
ship used by the Catholic Church. 

76. What is a Puritan ? a Separatist ? a Pilgrim ? — These 
are common terms in the history of Massachusetts. In the 
Church of England was a body of men who were called Puri- 
tans because they desired to "purify" the church. A majority 
of the Puritans would have been satisfied if this had been done. 
Others resolved to throw off all semblance to the Catholic 



I 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 75 

Church, use none of the forms, and make religion a matter 
of conscience. These "separated" from the national church 
and from the main body of Puritans and established a church 
of their own. They were called "Separatists." The Pil- 
grims were Separatists who found it necessary, on account 
of the opposition of the king, to leave England. They settled 
at Leyden, Holland, where they were allowed to worship 
according to their peculiar belief. On account of their 
wanderings, they were called "Pilgrims." 

77. The Pilgrims. — Bat while they were given freedom of 
worship, the Pilgrims found that that did not constitute all 
that was desirable in life. They were among a people foreign 
in language and in customs. As years passed they saw their 
children adopting the language, the manners, the dress, of 
the Hollander. They longed for a place where they might, 
without danger of losing their identity as Englishmen, have 
that religious freedom for which they had sacrificed so much. 
The New World presented such a field, and in September 
of 1620, after many grievous trials and disappointments, a 
company of one hundred or more of the bravest set sail for 
America in the good ship Mayflower. The men of this 
little company were very different from the "gentlemen" 
who went to Virginia to hunt for gold, or from the real 
gentlemen who went there later to live on the great 
plantations. The Pilgrims came to this country to make 
homes for themselves and their families. They came that 
they might enjoy once more the political and religious 
freedom which they had lost in their English home through 
the tyranny of King Charles II. They were men accustomed 
to work, fearless of hardships, and determined to succeed. 

78. The Voyage and the Compact. — During the nine weeks 
of the voyage the weather proved exceedingly rough, and the 
Mayflower was driven hither and thither, the sport of the 
winds. The Pilgrims having secured a grant from the 
London Company, intended to settle in the northern part 
of that Company's dominions, but the captain lost his 



76 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

bearings, and it was found on sighting land they had been 
driven north to the coast of Massachusetts. They entered 
Cape Cod Bay, and landed at the place which Captain John 
Smith in his map had called Plymouth — and thus "Ply- 
mouth Eock" became one of the historic spots of America. 
To-day a suitable monument marks the spot, commemorative 
of the "Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers." 

Being outside the London Company grant, their charter 
was void. They therefore gathered in the cabin of the May- 
flower and "solemnly covenanted and combined themselves 
into a 'civil body politick' for their 'better ordering and pres- 
ervation.' " They acknowledged King James as their sover- 
eign, but they declared as well their intention to make and 
obey their own laws. This was not an announcement of 
independence, but it meant self-government. This compact 
was solemnly signed, John Carver was chosen governor, and 
the Pilgrims began their new life. 

79. Hardships Endured. — The landing was made Decem- 
ber, 1G20. The prospect was anything but inviting. 
Winter had already set in, and it was upon them in all its 
New England rigor ere they could provide themselves suitable 
shelter. Sickness resulted, and before the winter was over 
half their number were in their graves. Governor Carver 
among them. But the living despaired not. They were 
sustained by the strongest sentiments that spring from the 
human heart — love of liberty, and the love of God. The 
return of spring brought brighter days. More Pilgrims 
joined the colony and before another winter came they were 
in better condition to withstand its rigor. 

80. The Indians and Miles Standish. — In his "History of 
Plymouth Plantation," AVilliam Bradford, who had succeeded 
to the leadership on the death of John Carver, remarks con- 
cerning their choice of location that "it was devoid of all 
civill inhabitants, wher ther are only savage and brutish men 
which range up and downe, little otherwise than ye wild 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 77 

vigilance of Miles Standish, the military man of the colony, 
these "brutish" men gave them little trouble. This was, to 
some extent, due to the fact that a pestilence had several 
years before almost completely annihilated the Indians of 
that immediate section. Massasoit, their chief, visited the 
colony and, being treated kindly, he became the fast friend 
of the colonists and for years no serious trouble occurred. 

MASSACHUSETTS — BAY COLONT 

SALEM, 162S 

81. The Puritans at Salem and Boston. — Although greatly 
persecuted by the king and Archbishop Laud, the head of 
the Church of England, the Puritans rapidly became a power 
in English social and political life. Many of them were of 
the nobility, men of wealth and standing. They could not 
tamely submit to the exactions of the king. The suc- 
cess of the Plymouth colony was by this time assured 
and turned the thoughts of many to the New World. A 
company was formed, a grant secured between the Charles 
and Merrimac rivers, and from "sea to sea," and, in 1628, a 
small company under the leadership of John Endicott settled 
at Salem. The leaders in England continued to agitate the 
matter and the following year succeeded in securing from 
the king a very liberal charter which practically placed the 
government in their own hands. It was resolved by the 
company to move at once to this grant, and, in 1G30, a 
wholesale immigration began. This was unlike the begin- 
nings of Virginia or Plymouth. The larger number of the 
newcomers were men of property, of education, accustomed to 
the refinements of life and to have a voice in the affairs of state. 
They took with them every appliance of civilized life then 
known. They "transplanted, full grown, a large and healthy 
tree of liberty and set it in the soil of a new state. " About one 
thousand persons composed the first body to leave England. 
Their arrival was hailed with joy by the settlers at Plymouth 
and Salem. They settled for the most part at points about 



78 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Boston Bay; some afc Salem, others started Cbarlestown, 
while still others, among them Governor Winthrop, laid out 
the town of Boston. The map shows that the geography 

of this country differs from 
the geography of Virginia. 
This caused a difference in 
the occupations of the people. 
The rocky soil is thin and 
poor, the rivers short and 
rapid. Obviously, their chief 
source of wealth was in manu- 
facturing and in commerce, 
for which the deeply-indented 
seacoast furnishes harbors. As 
a result, towns and cities 
sprang up all over New Eng- 
land. The town, and not the 
county, became the unit of 
government. 

82. Church and State. — In the government of the colony 
the suffrage and office-holding privilege was extended to 
church members only. The union of church and state thus 
became as complete as in Old England, and even more so. 
Only one religious belief was allowed. To depart by a hair's 
breadth from this was heresy, punishable by fine and im- 
prisonment, and, if persisted in, by banishment. 

83. The Growth of Democracy— The Town Meeting.— The 
*'town meeting" was an institution in which, from the begin- 
ning, the plant of democracy found its richest soil. There every 
matter of public moment was open for discussion. Once a 
week, or oftener, if public business required it, they gathered 
in the "town house," made simple rules for the government of 
the community, settled disputes or engaged in social converse. 
The effect was to interest each individual in the welfare of 
the community. It developed the idea of individual responsi- 
bility, so essential to a republican form of government. 



If! 




jH- 


%f ' '.''I \ i. 




5 J- |r •.:■;•"- 11.^^^ 


?? 


4' 


ij ^' — - 


-•' 







THE COMING OF THE EKGLISH HOME BUILDERS 79 

There was born that spirit which dared imprison Andros ; 
which later applauded Otis's '^taxation without representation 
is tyranny"; which made Massachusetts the leader in the 
Revolution. 

84. Religious Differences : Roger Williams, Anne Hutchin- 
son, and the Quakers. — The Puritans left the Church of Eng- 
land for conscience ^ sake. Roger AVilliams and Anne 
Hutchinson gave the same reason for leaving the Puritans. 
The freedom of speech demanded by the Puritan necessarily 
produced fruit of its kind. It was therefore natural that 
diiferences should arise. In 1631 there came to Plymouth a 
young Welshman, Roger Williams, of greatly advanced ideas 
concerning religion and government. He believed in com- 
plete religious toleration, such as we' practice to-day. He 
also believed in the complete separation of church and state. 
In Salem, where he became pastor of the church, he preached 
these views with such earnestness as to incur the displeasure 
of the leading men. For the Puritan came to America for 
freedom to worship as he believed proper, not to offer an 
asylum for all beliefs. Williams had also offended the gov- 
ernment by declaring that land should be bought direct from 
the Indian ; that the king had no right to make grants, for 
the reason that the land did not belong to him. These 
doctrines so alarmed the leaders of the colony that they 
determined to send Williams to England for trial. Receiving 
word of this, Williams took refuge with some friendly Indians, 
with whom he stayed during the winter of 1636. In that 
year he founded Providence. Anne Hutchinson also came 
under the ban of the Puritan leaders for preaching doctrines 
contrary to their belief. She had come to Boston in 1634 
and being very eloquent, and of great ability in the discussion 
of religious questions, soon had the colonists in a ferment. 
In 1637 she was banished. 

Later in the history of the colony the Quakers caused 
serious disturbances by teaching their doctrines. They were 
repeatedly banished, but as often returned. A peace-loving 



80 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ^H 

people, they cheerfully bore all punishment visited upon 
them. Before the persecution had run its course several of 
the sect suffered martyrdom for conscience sake. 

85. Salem Witchcraft. — In 1692 occurred in Salem, Massa- 
chusetts, what has since been referred to in history as "Salem 
Witchcraft." A belief prevailed at tliat time that a human 
being could suspend the laws of nature by the aid of evil 
spirits, and, while under their control, invoke injury to his 
fellows. The "delusion" became general, and for six months 
a reign of terror prevailed in Salem. Before it ran its course 
nineteen persons had been hanged and fifty-five tortured as 
witches. Some of the most eminent people had been engaged in 
this persecution, among others, the noted clergyman. Cotton 
Mather. One of the judges who had condemned some of the 
witches to death was so stricken with remorse that he after- 
wards rose in his place once a year in church, confessed his 
error, and asked the forgiveness of the people. While at its 
height, no one dared deny a belief in the delusion, as it was 
in the power of any ignorant or vicious person who had a 
grudge against another to declare him a witch. If more 
than one person so testified in court it was likely to go hard 
with the person accused. 

86. Andros. — During the early existence of the colony, 
Massachusetts had not suffered any serious annoyances from 
the home government, as the colony had friends in parlia- 
ment who looked after its interests. Like Virginia, Massa- 
chusetts had felt the enforcement of the Navigation Act, but 
on the whole, had continued to prosper. The governors of 
the colony had been for the most part chosen from among 
themselves, and the liberal character of the charter granted 
by Charles I. had permitted almost perfect self-government. 
By the many evasions of the Navigation Act, and by the 
independence the colonists manifested in the dispute over 
the New Hampshire boundaries and the separation of Maine 
Charles II. was angered, and in 1684 secured the revoca- 
tion of the charter by a decision of the Court of King's 



THE COMING OP THE ENGLI8H HOME BUILDERS 81 

Bench. In 1686 James II. appointed Sir Edmund Andres 
governor of the New England colonies, with headquarters at 
Boston. During the three years of his incumbency, the 
colony was in a constant turmoil. Contrary to the wishes of 
the colonists, he set up the Church of England, even seizing 
one of their meeting houses for that purpose. So obnoxious 
did Andros become, that the colonists rose against him and, 
even before the banishment of his royal master from England, 
had determined to rid themselves of him. When news of the 
banishment of James II. reached them they at once seized 
Andros (1689) and sent him to England for trial. He, 
however, escaped punishment and later served a term as 
governor of Virginia. 

Through the efforts of Increase Mather, who was in Eng- 
land at that time as the agent of the Massachusetts Bay 
colony, a new charter was obtained after the banishment of 
Andros. In securing this charter, difficulties had arisen in 
connection with Plymouth colony, England being determined 
that Plymouth should not be separately chartered. Indeed 
Plymouth colony had never been able to obtain a charter 
from the king, because of its avowed opposition to the Church 
of England. By the terms of this new charter, obtained in 
1691, the territories of the Massachusetts Bay colony, the 
Plymouth colony and Maine were united under the name of 
Massachusetts and became a royal province, its governor to 
be appointed by the king. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE 

87. Gorges and Mason. — The history of these colonies is 
closely allied to that of Massachusetts. Several years before 
a charter had been granted to the latter colony Sir Ferdi- 
nando Gorges and John Mason had obtained a grant of land 
reaching from the Kennebec to the Merrimac Kiver. They 
.established several fishing stations, one at Dover, another 
near Portsmouth. When the Massachusetts grant was made, 
it lapped over three miles on the New Hampshire grant. An 



82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

attempt was afterwards made to rectify the error, but the work 
was not well done and the Massachusetts colony never 
admitted the claim of the Gorges and Mason heirs. It led 
to endless dispute, as the heirs were persistent jn demanding 
their rights. The matter was finally somewhat quieted by the 
payment of a sum of money by the Massachusetts colony. 
By an agreement between Gorges and Mason, the latter took 
the land west of the Piscataqua, calling it New Hampshire ; 
the former took the part east of that river and called it Maine. 
Maine never had a separate existence from Massachusetts, as 
it was always claimed by that colony. New Hampshire was 
several times united to Massachusetts for protection from the 
Indians. It finally became a royal colony and remained so 
until the Revolution. The first settlement of New Hamp- 
shire was made at Dover, in 1623. Maine was settled in the 
same year. 

CONN^ECTICUT 

SAYBROOKE, 1635 ^^^H 

88. The New England Pilgrims and the Dutch Forts. — 

Connecticut was settled almost entirely by people from Massa- 
chusetts. Dutch traders had early settled at Hartford on the 
Connecticut River, and had built a fort at its mouth, but, 
being few in number, they were not able to hold it against 
Lords Say and Brooke, who had received a grant on the river 
from the king. The English proprietors made John Win- 
throp, son of the Massachusetts governor, their agent. AVith 
a small colony from Massachusetts, he sailed, in 1035, into 
the mouth of the Connecticut River, drove the Dutch away 
and made a settlement he called Saybrooke, in honor of his 
patrons. The tendency toward too close an alliance between 
church and state had become a matter of alarm to certain 
of the residents of Massachusetts towns, notably in Dor- 
chester, Watertown, and Cambridge. In 1636, under the 
leadership of the pastor at Cambridge, Thomas Hooker, a 
party made their way through the wilderness and made settle- 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 83 

ments at Hartford, AVindsor, and Wethersfield. These 
settlements increased rapidly in the next few years. The 
immigration from England to Massachusetts at this time 
was very heavy; and at this time also occurred the religious 
dissensions caused by Roger Williams and Anne Hutchin- 
son. In 1637 a party of wealthy immigrants from England 
settled New Haven. Their government was made to resem- 
ble a theocracy as nearly as possible. The Bible was their 
guide. Trial by jury, for instance, was denied, because it 
was not known in the Mosaic law. 

89. The Written Constitution.— In 1639 the different set- 
tlements on the Connecticut River met at Hartford and drew 
up a written constitution. New Haven was not represented 
because she did not agree with the upper settlements in 
matters of religion. The constitution was most liberal in its 
provisions and showed thus early the remarkable growth of 
democracy in New England. 

Church and state were separated by requiring no religious 
qualification of the voter ; every township had representation 
in the Assembly ; provision was made for the establishment of 
free schools ; no reference whatever was made to a king. 

90. Pequot War. — The Indians with whom the New Eng- 
land colonists had to deal, were, for the most part, peaceably 
inclined, and, as they were generally treated with fairness, the 
earlier years passed with little friction. However, it was not 
in Indian nature to see the white man increasing in numbers 
and strength, and the ancient hunting grounds of his fathers 
changing to cultivated fields, without entering a protest. As 
time passed, the Indian awoke to the fact that in the sale of 
his land he had forfeited his right forever. The realization of 
this fact caused him to become suspicious of all acts of the 
white settlers. Warlike in nature and accustomed to take 
counsel only of his wrongs and the possible power to redress 
them, physical retaliation was his first thought. It was, 
therefore, but a few years until the more warlike tribes were 
in open revolt against the whites. 



84 HISTORY OF THE Ul^ITED STATES 

The Pequots, a small tribe occupying the eastern part of 
Connecticut, were the first to give trouble. When the 
Massachusetts emigration in 1635-37 took place, the settlers 
were at once subject to annoyance from these Indians and 
soon a massacre of the whites occurred. This was charged 
to the account of the Pequots, and a band of settlers, 
under the leadership of the redoubtable John Endicott, 
retaliated. The Pequots then attempted to organize a 
confederacy, but, not being able to secm-e the help of the Nar- 
ragansetts, the influence of Roger AVilliams having kept that 
tribe friendly, they took the warpath alone. The colonists 
acted with promptness. Captain John Mason, with a band of 
Connecticut settlers, aided by John Underhill and a com- 
pany from Boston, with some seventy friendly Indians, 
attacked and burned their palisaded fort. Accounts differ 
as to the number killed, but it is certain that from four 
hundred to six hundred men, women, and children, met 
death, either at the hands of the attacking party or in the 
flames. The few that escaped were sold into slavery, and 
thus the whole tribe was exterminated — a piece of Old 
Testament justice which seems terrible to contemplate, but 
which, judged from the provocation and the ideas of justice 
held in that day, might possibly be excused. Certain it is 
that the Indian mind of all that region was so deeply 
impressed with the power of the whites that an entirely new 
generation of warriors was necessary before the famous King 
Philip could organize his confederacy. 

91. The United Colonies of New England.— 1643.— The 
Pequot War, the renewed attempts of the Dutch to regain 
control of their lost territory, the encroachments of the 
French and Indians on the north, and the war between 
Charles I. and his subjects, made it seem desirable that 
a general union of the colonies should be encouraged. 
On the proposition of Connecticut, the people in every town 
in New England except those of Rhode Island met in their 
town meetings and elected delegates to a General Court to 



THE COMIKG OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 85 

meet at the seat of government of each of the colonies. 
These courts elected delegates to a convention to be held in 
Boston. Thus the people of each town, as well as the whole 
colony, were represented in this first Congress. On meeting 
they formed the ''United Colonies of New England." Four 
colonies were represented — Massachusetts, Plymouth, Con- 
necticut, and New Haven. Each was to furnish its quota of 
soldiers for the common defence and bear a proportionate 
amount of the expense. Each was represented in the gen- 
eral body by two delegates, who formed a Board of Commis- 
sioners. 

92. King Philip's War and the Checking of Missionary 
Work Among the Indians. — Massasoit, the chief of the 
Wampanoags, had been treated so kindly by the Pilgrims 
during that first hard winter, that he was ever after a sin- 
cere friend of the whites. At his death, in 1660, his son, 
Philip, became chief of the tribe and was soon engaged in an 
effort to organize a confederacy of all the New England 
Indians for the extermination of the whites. The mission- 
ary work of John Eliot had been instrumental in partially 
civilizing some four thousand of the Indians, while some of the 
tribes had always been more friendly than others, so that he 
was successful in interesting but three tribes — the Wam- 
panoags, the Nipmucks, and the Narragansetts. Hostilities 
began in June, 1675, at the town of Swansea, where an attack 
was made and followed up at several other towns, a number 
of whites being killed. The "United Colonies" at once 
organized and punished the AYampanoags severely. Philip 
was not captured, however, and continued the war at the 
head of the Nipmucks and the Narragansetts. The colonists 
now took efficient measures for the organization of a large 
force, each colony furnishing its quota. In December an 
army of one thousand men marched against the Narragan- 
setts. This tribe, to the number of three thousand, had 
erected a fort in the center of a swamp; for this reason the 
fight that followed is known as the "swamp fight," The 



36 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

fort was attacked and all the features of the Peqiiot extermi- 
nation were enacted, though not quite so successfully in this 
case. One thousand of the Indians were killed and a num- 
ber taken prisoners— these were quartered in the different 
towns for a long period and made to serve the whites, or 
actually sold into slavery. Several hundred escaped, how- 
ever and for years kept the frontier in a state of terror. 
King Philip was killed the next year through the treachery 
of one of his own Indians. 

This was the last organized Indian war the New England 
colonists experienced,— though the exposed settlements felt 
the merciless hatred of the survivors through another hun- 
dred years. The war was not without its good fruits, though 
the loss of thirteen towns and six hundred lives, together 
with the accumulation of a burdensome debt, was a fearful 
price to pay. It was the first time that anything like a 
general gathering for defence had been necessary. It 
taught the value of union, and helped to break down the 
religious and political prejudices existing, in marked degree, 
among the colonies at that time. 

One outcome of the war was the check given to the mis- 
sionary work of the Reverend John Eliot. He had done a 
grand work among the Indians, gathering into separate 
towns those who professed conversion and were desirous of 
trying the ways of civilization. Prior to the war, some 
thirty of these "praying" towns had been organized, and 
many of the Indians had made great advancement. But as 
the war came on, the natural instinct of many of these 
''praying" Indians got the better of their educational train- 
ing, and in one case a whole town went over to the enemy. 
This had the effect of cooling the missionary zeal of the 
colonists, and the work gradually ceased. 

93 The Connecticut Charter.— When James II. sent Andros 

■ to be governor of all New England, in 1686, it was with 

instructions to annul all the charters and unite the colomes 

under one government. This he proceeded to do without 




■WILLIAM PENN 
.TOHN W^INTHROP 



JONATHAN EDWARDS 
ROOER W^ILLIAMS 



CocoNiAr^ Leaders 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 87 

regard to the protests of the different colonies. When he went 
to Hartford he met with an especially earnest protest. While 
the conference was proceeding between Governor Robert Treat 
and Andros, and it seemed certain that Andros would carry out 
his purpose, the candles were suddenly blown out. When 
they were relighted, it was found that the charter had been 
spirited away and could not be found. It had been taken by 
Captain Wadsworth and placed in tlie trunk of a hollow oak 
tree near by, where it remained until Andros had returned 
to Boston. This oak was ever after known as the *' Charter 
Oak" and remained standing until a storm blew it down in 
1856. 

RHODE ISLAND 

PROVTDEyCE, 1636 

94. Providence Founded — 1636. — During his residence in 
Salem, Roger Williams had cultivated the acquaintance of 
the Indians and had learned to speak their language fluently. 
Banished from Massachusetts in the midst of winter, he found 
a welcome in the wigwams of these Indians. In the spring 
Canonicus, chief of the Narragansefcts, gave him a tract of 
land, and with five companions he founded Providence, so 
named because of his "confidence in the mercies of God." 
Here he invited the oppressed of every clime, of whatever 
belief, giving them freely of the land he had received from 
the Indians. 

95. Anne Hutchinson's Settlements, Portsmouth and New- 
port. — Some of the followers of Anne Hutchinson upon 
banishment from Massachusetts founded towns to the north. 
Others, in company with their leader, bought the island of 
Aquedneck, or Rhode Island, from the Indians, and settled 
Portsmouth (1638) and Newport (1639). As in Providence, 
the utmost freedom was allowed. Religion was made a mat- 
ter of conscience. All participated in the affairs of govern- 
ment. 

96. Roger Williams Secures a Charter — 1644.— There was 
much in common between the settlements of Providence, Ports- 



88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

mouth, and Newport. It was therefore determined to unite 
them under a common government. With that idea in view, 
Koger Williams was sent, in 1643, to England to secure a 
charter. He returned the following year with the document 
and the settlements were thenceforth known as the "Provi- 
dence Plantations." 

97. Liberal Ideas as to Religion. — The establishment of 
Providence Plantations marked a distinct epoch [in govern- 
ment in the New World. As noted before, the Puritan in 
Massachusetts was as intolerant as were the people in Eng- 
land from whom he had fled. The Connecticut settlements 
took a decided step in advance of Massachusetts, but it 
remained for Rhode Island to grant complete religious toler- 
ation. Men of all beliefs or of no belief were made welcome. 

98. Separation of Church and State. — Williams believed 
that religion should have nothing to do with civil affairs. 
The Puritan required every man to support the government 
and the church; if he were a church member, he could hold 
office and vote ; otherwise, he had no voice in the institutions 
he helped support. Roger Williams insisted that no man 
ought to be required to support that of which he was not a 
part ; that it was wrong to tax a man unless he be given a 
voice in how this tax was to be distributed. This was the 
first formal recognition of that principle which the colonies 
fought so valiantly to maintain a century later — "taxation 
without representation is tyranny." 

KEW YORK 

99. New Amsterdam and the Dutch Traders. — From the 

day that Henry Hudson arrived in Holland with stories 
of the beautiful river he had discovered, and of the valu- 
able furs that could be secured from the Indians for mere 
trinkets, Dutch traders began to visit that section. They 
claimed all the territory between the Delaware and Con- 
necticut rivers. As early as 1613 they built a few huts on 
the present site of New York and named the settlement 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 89 



New Amsterdam. In 1 621 the Dutch government chartered 
the West India Company, giving it unlimited powers over 
all colonies established. This 
Company two years later built 
Fort Orange, now Albany, and 
made permanent settlement at 
New Amsterdam. A brisk 
trade was carried on with the 
Indians, but no effort was 
made, until later in the history 
of the colony, to cultivate the 
land. In 1626 the first Dutch 
governor arrived. He bought 
Manhattan Island of the In- 
dians for twenty-four dollars, 
about one mill per acre. 

100. The Grant to the Duke 
of York. — In establishing col- 
onies in the New World, the 
Dutch had not taken into 
account, if they knew it, the 
claim of the English to the 
territory, based on the Cabot 
voyage. On their part, the 
English allowed a half century 
to pass before they enforced 
recognition of the claim. But 
in 1664 Charles II. granted new yobk and vicinity 

to his brother, the Duke of York, all the territory between the 
Connecticut and the Delaware, and an English fleet was sent 
to dispossess the Dutch. These burghers had been so intent 
on commercial affairs that they had neglected fortifying their 
territory. They had erected a small fort at New Amster- 
dam, but as it could not stand against the attack of so formi- 
dable an enemy it was decided to surrender ; this, "much to 
the disgust of old Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor, who 







90 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



desired to give battle to the English. New Amsterdam took 
the name of New York, and Fort Orange that of Albany. 

Dutch rule was thus ended in America, except for a short 
period nine years later, when a Dutch fleet appeared in the 
harbor and demanded the surrender of the town. The fol- 
lowing year it was retaken by the English. 

101. Indian Policy of the Dutch. — About the same time 
that Champlain incurred for the French the lasting enmity 
of the Iroquois by joining a war party of Hurons against 
them, Henry Hudson was inaugurating for the Dutch that suc- 
cessful policy which made the Iroquois their lasting friends. 
The Dutch traders soon found that "honesty was the best 
policy," even with the Indians. They always paid them for 
their land, and gave full value for the furs they received in 
trade. For this reason the Dutch usually lived on friendly 

terms with the Indians, and 
their friendship was secured 
to the English when the latter 
came into control. The "Five 
Nations" for years were con- 
sistent friends of the English 
as against the French, and 
even in the Revolution followed 
the English flag. 

102. Jacob Leisler. — Peter 
Stuyvesant was the most ener- 
getic of the Dutch governors and did much to extend Dutch 
rule in America. He, however, became so arrogant and 
severe in his dealings with the colonists, that they were not 
sorry when the English took control. They had hoped to 
be accorded the same measure of liberty that prevailed in 
other English colonies. In this they were not disappointed. 
The royal governors of course ruled after the arbitrary 
example set by their sovereign, but the colonists succeeded 
in getting a representative assembly in 1683. Andros, who 
was governor from 1674 to 1680, and again in 1688, was as 




DUTCH HOUSES 



THE C0M1XC4 OP THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 



91 




DL'TCUJIAN 



unpopular in New York as he was in Massachusetts, and 
when James II. was deposed his deputy was at once 
required to hand over the reins of 
government. Jacob Leisler, an un- 
cultured but successful merchant, 
and popular with the common peo- 
ple, assumed the governorship. 
Although somewhat arbitrary, he 
pleased the people fairly well for three 
years, when the governor sent over 
by the new king put in an appear- 
ance. For reasons not clearly under- 
stood Leisler refused for some time 
to give up the office. He was finally 
arrested and executed for treason. 

103. The Patroon System. — Trading with the Indians was 
so profitable that farming was little thought of in the early 
history of this colony. But the company 
inaugurated a system in 1629 which they 
hoped might induce people to settle along 
the rivers for the purpose of cultivating 
tlie land. They agreed to give to anyone 
who would settle a colony of fifty persons 
on the land, a tract of sixteen miles along 
any river, without limit as to depth, or 
eight miles on both sides of the river. 
These parties were to have absolute con- 
trol, not only of their land, but of the 
settlers on the land. A number availed 
themselves of this offer. But this 
*'patroon system," as it was called, 
proved detrimental to the progress of the 
colony. It created a wealthy landed 
aristocracy, which in time assumed too 
power in the government of the colony; it also dis- 




DUTCH MAIDEN 



much 



couraged the settling of less wealthy people in the agricul- 



92 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tural districts. In 1640, the "charter was modified and 
extended to any good citizen of the Netherlands." The 
antirent difficulties in New York in 1844 grew out of these 
old patroon land titles. 

104. Education and Religion.— Religion was never a mat- 
ter for controversy among the Dutch. Religious toleration 
was complete with them. All creeds were welcome. The 
charter of the West India Company, however, was the first 
in the New World to enjoin the care of education and religion 
on the people. 

NEW JERSEY 

ELIZABETHTOWS, 1665 

105. Berkeley and Carteret — East and West Jersey. — This 
colony was first claimed by the Dutch and settlement made 
by them as early as 1020. When the English took New 
York in 16G4, the Duke of York granted the land between 
the Delaware and Hudson rivers to Lord Berkeley, and Sir 
George Carteret, naming it New Jersey in honor of the 
latter 's famous defence of the Island of Jersey against 
Cromwell. Under "the Concessions," a document issued 
by the proprietors (and which afterwards assumed the 
importance of a charter), an English settlement was begun 
at Elizabethtown in 1665, and in the following year New 
Englanders founded Newark and Middletown. Freedom of 
religious belief Avas accorded settlers and the colony became 
a refuge for the oppressed of all denominations. In 1673 
Berkeley sold his right to the Quakers. By an agreement 
between the proprietors, a division was made in 1674, the 
Quakers taking the west part of the grant and Carteret 
the east. In 1682 Carteret's heirs also sold to the Quakers. 
William Penn and his associates held New Jersey until 1702, 
when they relinquished all their rights to the English gov- 
ernment. It was then united to New York, tliongh electing 
its own assembly. In 1738 it was made a royal jirovince. 

106. Title Troubles. — New Jersey was under the jurisdic- 
tion of so many different parties in its early history that title 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 93 

to the land became confused. Those who settled under the 
Dutch claimed large tracts, the boundaries to which were 
vague and uncertain. This was true also of the Swedes. 
When the English took charge there was a disposition to 
interfere with these claims. As years passed, and the land 
was sold to different parties, endless and bitter disputes 
arose as to ownership. At last the proprietors in despair 
sold out their rights to the government, which succeeded 
finally in quieting titles. 

107. New Jersey. — The colonial history of New Jersey is 
very commonplace. No great patriotic or religious sentiment 
was manifest in its settlement. There were no uprisings of 
the people in behalf of liberty as against tyrannical governors ; 
no horrible Indian atrocities; no rebellions; no witchcraft. 
This was due to environment, and to the fact that the 
dominant elements in the settlement of the colony, Quakers 
and Presbyterians, were more staid and peace-loving than 
some other classes. But the plant of liberty grew as sturdily 
in New Jersey as in New England. 
The Revolution found no more loyal 
and enthusiastic supporters when 
once the die had been cast. 

PENNSYLVANIA 

rHILADELPIIIA, ?6\s2 

108. The Quakers. — Of the many 
sects born of the religious unrest in 
the seventeenth century, none has 
left a deeper impress on the cause 
of liberty and popular government 
than the Quakers. George Fox was| 
founder of this sect and William 
Penn its greatest apostle. The 
practices and belief of the Quakers Quakers 

were diametrically opposed to the state religion. They 
eschewed all forms, believed in the direct guidance of God, 




94 HISTORY OF THE UXITEI) STATES 

or the "inner light" received from God — thus making an 
enlightened conscience their guide in their daily life. In 
the belief that it was disloyalty to the Supreme Ruler, they 
refused to show respect to many of the customs of society and 
the requirements of government. They remained covered in 
the presence of royalty ; they refused to take oath in court ; 
they would not go to war, nor would they pay taxes for the 
prosecution of war. They believed in the abolition of all 
titles, in straightforward language, in sober deportment 
and dress. These departures necessarily brought persecu- 
tion, but they early showed such a contemj^t for the 
various methods of persecution employed — even gladly 
suffering if it were for the sake of their belief — that they 
were frequently allowed to remain in quiet. These qualities, 
together with a most persistent missionary spirit, soon spread 
their doctrines and they became a power for good in the land. 
They were ideal material out of which to build a state, for 
Quakerism "cherished the essence of democracy, because 
one of its necessary beliefs was that each man was the equal 
of every other." 

109. William Penn and His "Holy Experiment." — William 
Penn was the son of Admiral Penn of the English navy. With 
all the advantages of wealth and position, he chose to for- 
sake all for conscience sake. While a student at Oxford he 
came under the inflnence of a Quaker minister and at once 
became an enthusiastic convert. Thinking to wean him 
from his belief the father sent him to Paris, and the gaieties 
of that city seemed to have the desired effect. But later 
he again came under the teachings of this sect, and this 
time gave up his life to the spread of its peculiar doc- 
trines. His social position was of little avail in warding off* 
persecution, for he was repeatedly thrown into prison, and 
made to suffer the contempt and disdain of his former 
friends. He was several times cast off by his father, but as 
often taken back and at his death inherited a considerable 
fortune. This gave him the opportunity to carry out a plan 



THE COMIXG OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 



05 



for the establishment of a haven for his persecuted brethren. 
The king had become indebted to his father in the sum of 
sixteen thousand pounds. This debt was cancelled in consid- 
eration of the gift of forty thousand square miles in America, 
part of the Duke of York's grant, and which the king 
named Penn's Woods, or Pennsylvania, in honor of the father. 
Penn at once began preparations on a large scale for the 
colonization of this tract. He advertised it thoroughly, 
sending agents throughout the various countries of Europe. 
In 1G81 the first colony was sent over, and the following year 
he himself came with others. Although he did not remain 
long in America, he visited it several times, and spent the 
remainder of his life in promoting the welfare of the colony 
he had established. 

110. Philadelphia Founded. — Selecting a suitable site be- 
tween the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers, Penn in 1682 laid 
out the city of Philadelphia, the name signifying "brotherly 
love." The success of 
the venture was flattering 
from the first. During the 
first year one hundred 
houses were built. In two 
years the city contained 
two thousand inhabitants 
and at the end of the cen- 
tury was the second city 
in America. Penn himself 
had a handsome home 
built there, though he 
occupied it but a short 
time. Not only in its 
increase in population did 
this colony surpass other 
•colonies, but also in the 
varied occupations of its 
people. A study of the 







96 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

geography of the colony indicates many natural products and 
resources. The industrial life very early found expression 
in manufacturing, mining, and farming. 

111. Penn's Indian Policy. — The essence of the famous 
Indian policy of AVilliam Penn is contained in a single sen- 
tence of a letter to a friend concerning their treatment — 
"Justice gains and awes them." He applied the Golden 
Rule. They responded in kind. Although he was rightful 
owner of the land according to the custom of the time, he 
immediately proceeded to buy the tract of those who were 
morally entitled to it. Under a stately elm, which stood 
the storms of over a century after the scene was enacted, he 
made solemn covenant with them. "We are one flesh and 
blood," said he. And they replied, "While the river runs 
and the sun sliines, we will live in peace with the children 
of William Penn." Until the breaking out of the French 
and Indian War the borders of Pennsylvania were free from 
the atrocities visited on the other colonies. 

112. Boundary Lines. — Like all other colonies, Pennsyl- 
vania bad much trouble concerning her boundaries. On the 
north, New York and Connecticut objected to the liberal 
Penn grant and for years much ill feeling was engendered. 
On the south, the claims of Lord Baltimore had to be 
considered. These disputes were not finally disposed of 
until 17G6, when the famous "Mason and Dixon" line was 
run by two English surveyors from whom the line was 
named. 

As an instance of the manner in which boundaries were 
located in that early day, it is related of Penn that his agree- 
ment with the Indians for a certain tract of land calling for 
so much as could be "walked over in three days," was strictly 
adhered to. Penn and the Indians gathered on a certain day 
and walked leisurely into the forest. The next day they 
walked till noon, when the junket was adjourned. The dis- 
tance covered was some thirty miles, with still a day and a half 
to walk. Some fifty years after, the remaining portion was 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 97 

walked. This time famous "sprinters" were hired, they 
covering eighty-six miles in thirty-six hours. 

113. Charter and Government. — Certain circumstances 
combined to make the charter granted to Penn a very liberal 
one, though Charles II. at that time was bent on enforcing a 
very narrow policy in the colonies. The friendship which 
had existed between the king and old Admiral Penn softened 
him toward the son; the close friendship existing between 
William Penn and the king's brother, the Duke of York, 
made the king kindly disposed; the fact of the Quakers 
being persecuted by the Puritans whom the king disliked 
caused Charles to be especially kind to the Quakers. The 
charter granted Penn full power to govern as he thought 
best, — reserving to the people the right of appeal to the 
king, and requiring that all acts passed by the legislative 
body should be ratified by him. 

"Liberty without obedience is confusion, and obedience 
without liberty is slavery," was a principle stated by Penn, 
and he followed it strictly. In the "Frame of Government" 
issued by him he required strict obedience to the laws, but 
made few of them and those very liberal. A Council and 
Assembly were granted — members to be elected by freemen, 
having "faith in Christ." Penn governed by deputies dur- 
ing his lifetime, and his heirs followed the same plan. 

DELAWARE 

WILMINGTON, 1638 

114. The Three Lower Counties. — The entire tract of 
Penn's grant lay west of the Delaware. This shut him oif 
from the ocean, and in order to secure an outlet he bought 
of the Duke of York his remaining interest, known thence- 
forth as "the three lower counties on the Delaware," or the 
"Territories." These were settled by much the same class 
of people as were found in Penn's own colony, and until 
1703 were under the same government. At their request, 
Penn granted them a separate Assembly, his deputy adminis- 



98 HISTORY O? THE UNITED STATES 

tering the laws. Delaware was first settled by the Swedes, 
in 1638. They were dispossessed by the Dutch, who in 
turn yielded to the English. 

MARYLAND 

ST. MARY'S, 1634 

115. Lord Baltimore and His Liberal Grant. — Maryland 
was another colony whose settlement was occasioned by 
religious persecution. In its earlier days the Church of 
England persecuted all who did not conform to its tenets. 
Catholics, as well as Puritans. Sir George Calvert, known 
also as Lord Baltimore, having become a Catholic, secured 
a charter from the king to plant a colony in America. His 
grant was from the fortieth parallel to the Potomac, the 
western boundary being a line directly north to that parallel 
from the source of that river. Before a colony could be 
sent. Lord Baltimore died. His son, Cecil Calvert, carried 
out his plans. The charter granted the Calverts was the 
most liberal ever issued by an English monarch. It made 
the proprietor absolute ruler over the colony, requiring only 
that once a year he should send two Indian arrows to the 
king in token of his allegiance; also a third of the gold and 
silver discovered. If it were the intention at first to exclude 
all but Catholics, this idea was abandoned even before the 
first colony was sent out, the two ships containing both 
Protestants and Catholics. 

116. Settlement — Claiborne's Opposition. — The name of 
Maryland was given to the new colony in honor of the 
Queen, Henrietta Maria, and the first settlement, called St. 
Mary's, was begun in 1631, the location on the Potomac 
being purchased from the Indians. Maryland's early his- 
tory was closely connected with that of Virginia, the occu- 
pations of the people of both colonies being much the 
same, and both feeling the necessity for maintaining 
a united front against the Indians. The settling at St. 
Mary's caused immediate and serious trouble. A Vir 






THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 99 

ginia planter by the name of Claiborne claimed all this 
section and was able to offer most determined opposition. 
He was at last expelled, though not before some blood had 
been shed and much bad feeling engendered. A number 
of years later the controversy was renewed, and being taken 
on appeal to the king, was decided by him in favor of the 
colonists. Despite these troubles and those engendered by re- 
ligious differences, Maryland was always a prosperous colony. 

117. Religious Troubles — Toleration Acts. — The student 
of to-day cannot appreciate the tenacity with which the 
fathers held to their religious beliefs and their readiness at 
all times to engage in combat, mental or physical in their 
defence. It was a time of first growth — not so much atten- 
tion given to beauty of form as to deep rooting in a nourish- 
ing soil. This soil was fonnd in the New World, and it seemed 
alike rich to all faiths — though opposed to each other. Mary- 
land presented a strange anomaly in that age of the world, 
— the Catholic and the Protestant working side by side, and in 
seeming harmony. This was largely due to the fact that the 
source of their persecution was the same — the Church of 
England. They yielded to that "fellow feeling in misery," 
which sometimes makes the "whole world kin," and for the 
time being were friends. However, disputes over religion 
soon began, and much difficulty was found in satisfying both 
Protestants and Catholics. 

In 1649 a "Toleration Act" was passed by the Assembly 
as a compromise between the two parties. This was respected 
for some time, but after 1691, when the colony became a 
royal province, the Catholics were given scant justice. 
Later Maryland became a proprietary colony and thus 
remained until the Revolution. 

THE CAROLINAS 

ALBEMARLE, 1653, AND CHARLESTON, 1670 

118. Carolina Grant. — The stretch of coast comprised in 
the two Carolinas and Georgia had a very unfortunate early 

L.ofC. 



100 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

history. It was the scene of DeAllyon's San Miguel disas- 
ter, of Eibaut's Port Royal failure, of the several Raleigh 
attempts, ending with the complete disappearance of the 
"lost colony." Grants were made of it to several parties, 
but not till after the middle of the seventeenth century was 
any permanent settlement made. In 1663 Charles II. 
gave it to eight of his personal friends. Lord Clarendon 
being one of them. They immediately proceeded to 
employ a philosopher of the day, John Locke, to draft 
an elaborate scheme of government. The chief point of 
interest in this plan was the attempt to revivify the now 
obsolete feudal system. There were to be barons and 
vassals and fiefs and holdings; in fact, the world was to 
be set back a half cycle of centuries. But it was not to be. 
The spirit that prompted the human heart to rebel against 
the tyranny of the time at home laughed this child of feu- 
dalism out of countenance. The colonists would have none 
of it; and it is creditable in the highest degree to these 
home builders in the south that John Locke's ''Model," as 
the scheme was called, did not have even a chance of success. 

119. Albemarle Colony — * 'Poor Whites." — The first colonists 
were sent over in 1665. They found that a settlement had al- 
ready been made (1653) by people from Virginia, among whom 
were many Quakers, who had been driven out of the other 
colonies. In fact, many people in the northern part of the 
grant were found who were known as ''poor whites." These 
were hunters and trappers, of a roving disposition. As a class 
they were shiftless to a degree. There were among them 
some of better mold, however, who became the progeni- 
tors of that free and liberty loving element which still 
inhabits the Blue Ridge country, and of which Abraham 
Lincoln is said to be a product. 

120. The Carteret Colony — Charleston. — Five years after 
the Albemarle colony was established, another was sent 
out, called the Carteret colony. A settlement was made 
by this colony on the Ashley river at first, but later a 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 101 



better location was found on the present site of Charles- 
ton. This colony flourished from the beginning. Large 
numbers of the Dutch as well as of the persecuted 
Huguenots from France, flocked to the settlement. This 
latter element came in great numbers, forming whole streets 
in the town. They were a people of gentle and refined 
manners; of good education, — and, like the Boston colony, 
set up in the new world all the institutions they were accus- 
tomed to in the old. 

121. Separation. — The separation of Carolina into two 
distinct colonies was determined from the first by the char- 
acter of the people in the different settlements. Topography 
has much to do with occupations ; and it is also true that 
the occupations of a people determine to a large extent their 
general characteristics. Hunters, trappers, and small farm- 
ers found the soil and climate of the northern part of Caro- 
lina better suited to their 

pursuits ; while the warm- 
er climate, and the low- 
lands of the southern 
portion, attracted the 
large planters. The for- 
mer gathered in commun- 
ities and led lives much 
after the fashion of the 
Massachusetts Puritans; 
the latter became large 
slave owners, and lived in 
lordly elegance on great 
plantations ; or, main- 
tained princely homes in 
Charleston, or in other town settlements. Thus grew 
up side by side two civilizations, more or less distinct. 
The independent spirit maintained by the colonists, in 
the northern portion particukirly, caused the proprietors 
so much trouble that in 1720 they sold their interest to the 







*•• CHARLESTON 


;■/■- ' 




_, 







102 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

government. The division was then made into North and 
South Carolina and they remained royal provinces until 
merged into the Republic. 

122. Indian Troubles. — On the western slopes of the Blue 
Ridge and in the contiguous river valleys, lived the Tusca- 
roras, a branch of the fierce Iroquois of the north. These 
Indians became restive under the advance of civilization; 
and, as time passed, the outlying settlements began to suffer 
from their incursions. The colonists finally rallied after an 
attempted massacre in 1711, and the following year inflicted 
a severe defeat on this tribe at the battle of Neuse. 
Again in 1712 the Indians were defeated and eight hundred 
taken prisoners. This defeat had such a dispiriting effect, 
that, in 1715, the remnant of the tribe joined their clans- 
men in the north and became the "sixth" nation of the 
noted Iroquois Confederacy. 

GEORGIA 

SAl'AyNAII, 173.i 

123. Oglethorpe and His Wards. — Maryland was the only 
southern colony into whose settlement the idea of religion 
entered. Philanthropy, coupled with a military idea, brought 
about the settlement of Georgia. The wretched condition of 
the debtor class of England began to touch the hearts of 
philanthropists in the early part of the eighteenth century. 
The prisons were overflowing with people — many of them of 
worthy character; but who, unfortunately, could not keep 
out of debt. James Oglethorpe, a kind-hearted oflficer in 
the British army and a member of the English parliament, 
conceived the idea of relieving this distress, and at the 
same time of providing for his country a post of defence 
against the Spaniards on the south. He was given by George 
II. a grant from the Savannah river to the Altamaha to be held 
in trust for the poor. The region was named Georgia in honor 
of the king. The first settlement was made at the mouth 
of the Savannah River in 1733. A fort was erected to carry 



THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 103 

out the idea of defence. During the first years of the col- 
ony prosperity seemed assured, but owing to adverse circum- 
stances its subsequent history was one of much discord and 
trouble. 

124. Spaniards and Indians. — Hardly had the colony been 
well started, before war was declared between England and 
Spain, giving Governor Oglethorpe an opportunity to test 
some of his military ideas. He took the initiative and 
besieged the Spaniards at St. Augustine, but was compelled 
to retire before anything was accomplished. The Spaniards 
in their turn attacked the exposed outposts of the English, 
but were repulsed. This ended the Spaniard's dream of 
dominion on the coast of North America. But for years 
the Spaniards were a source of great annoyance to the 
Georgians by reason of their constant stirring up of the 
Indians along the -border. Not until the Indian had felt the 
iron hand of General Andrew Jackson, and Florida had 
become a part of the United States, did Georgia cease to be 
troubled from these sources. 

125. The Wesleys. — The founders of Methodism, John and 
Charles Wesley, became interested in the Georgian colony 
very early in its history. Both came to the colony in 1735, 
Charles returning, after a year's service as private secretary 
to the governor. John Wesley remained for three years 
and laid the foundation of Methodism in the New World. 

126. The Colony a Disappointment. — After twenty years of 
earnest effort to serve humanity, James Oglethorpe returned 
his charter to the king. The class of people whose condition 
he had sought to ameliorate was far from suitable material out 
of which to build a state. Many refused his philanthropy 
outright, and a large part of those who did come were so shift- 
less that they were a constant burden on the colony. Had 
it not been for the sturdy German Lutherans and Scotch 
.Highlanders, and a few Huguenots from France and South 

Carolina, this attempt at colonization would have proved an 
utter failure. 



CHAPTER V 
THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 

THE FOUR INTERCOLONIAL WARS 

KING WILLIAM'S, 16S9-1697. 
QUEEN ANNES, 17()-J-1713. 
KING GEORGE- S, 1744-174S. 
FRE?iCIl AND INDIAN, 1754-1763. 

127. The French and English in America. — The colonial 
policy of France had resulted in building up a line of 
military posts for the protection of the trader and of 




BKGINNING OF THK BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 

the missionary. The Englishman, on the other hand, was 
a home builder. He subdued tlie wilderness with the 
ax and torch and wrung from it the wherewithal to satisfy 
his needs. The French trapper followed his quarry deeper 
and deeper into the forest; the missionary wandered from 

104 






THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 105 

tribe to tribe, farther and farther away from civilization. 
The Englishman clnng to the seaboard, and for over a century 
the rich soil of the Atlantic coast plain sufficed for his agricul- 
tural tastes. The Frenchman, entering the continent through 
the ice-floes of the north, had pushed his way west to the 
sunny climes of the south. The very year that William 
Penn crossed the ocean to begin his "holy experiment," the 
incomparable La Salle unfurled the lilies of France at the 
mouth of the Mississippi and completed the crescent that 
bound the English to the coast. But as the years passed, 
the Anglo-Saxon, lured by the richer agricultural regions of 
the west, broke over nature's mountain barrier and pushed 
the contest into the territory claimed by the Latin. Thence- 
forth war was inevitable. 

128. Indian Policies Contrasted. — The French had won the 
friendship of the Indian to a greater extent than had the 
English. Not that the Frenchman was kindlier by nature 
than the Briton; he was not. But the latter came to the 
New World to build a home. In the building he destroyed 
the Indian's hunting ground, and thus left him impoverished. 
On the other hand, the Frenchman left the Indian unmolested. 
Commercially, it was to the Frenchman's interest to leave the 
forest and stream as he found them, asking but a spot upon 
which to build his cabin. Again, the Englishman bought his 
land of the Indian in immense tracts by treaty, or in small 
farms, by direct purchase. It meant in either case the absolute 
transfer of the land, together with all rights and privileges. 
This the Indian mind could not fathom. He could under- 
stand the granting of hunting privileges for certain "moons," 
but it ended there. He never contemplated the absolute 
transfer of the land itself, but a simple sharing, or giving 
up for a season of the hunting or planting privileges. This 
view not interfering with the French commercial idea, or 
rather there being no reason for a purchase of the land, the 
Latin was comparatively free from the strife to which the 
Anglo-Saxon fell heir in such abundance. 



106 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



KING WILLIAM'S WAR 



129. Cause — Parties Engaged. — At the close of the seven- 
teenth century a spirited contest was in progress between 
the French and the English both in Europe and in Amer- 
ica. The contest began in Europe. James 11. succeeded to 
the English throne on the death of his brother, Charles II. 
His conduct was so outrageously against English interests, 
that the English rose in rebellion and drove him from the 
country. The French king welcomed him to his court and 
thus gave cause for war, which was declared in 1689 by 
King William III., whom an act of parliament had placed 
upon the throne. As soon as England and France began 
fighting, the colonists in America took up the quarrel and a 
struggle began for the possession of Acadia and New France. 

130. Port Royal Expedition. — During the eight years of 
this war most of the action took place on the frontiers of the 

respective parties. The 
French held Port Eoyal 
on the coast of Acadia. 
This being a constant 
menace to the colonies, 
and especially to Massa- 
chusetts, an expedition 
against it was organized 
under the leadership of 
Sir AVilliam Phipps. He 
set out with eighteen 
hundred New England 
troops, and such was the spirit displayed by leader and men 
that both Port Royal and Acadia fell an easy prey into their 
hands. A later naval attack on Quebec resulted in most 
disastrous faihire. 

131. Frontenac and Indian Atrocities. — For the conduct 
of the war in America, the king of France sent Count Fron- 
tenac, — in many respects a remarkable man, though lacking 









'j5;:C '■•-■'— S^i. <i 




f^'t 


;wt«P*^^^:.^. '■■■ 


"W 

'«-,:=§:. 




.■>::-r ' . ,^" ,4^^*^;,^^ 


i^S \J^^'^- 


# V .. i' 




Wu' 




■ * poVA.rr^^'*^ -jt ji vi> - 


■v 















THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 107 

ill a spirit of humanity. He at once formed an alliance 
with the Algonkin tribes and made a strong effort to con- 
ciliate the Iroquois, whom Champlain had offended, but the 
traditions of nearly a century were stronger than any argu- 
ment Frontenac could bring to bear, and the Iroquois 
remained faithful to the English. Fronteuac carried the 
hardships of the war into the territory of the Iroquois with 
such severity as to force from them a treaty of peace. He 
kept the English frontiers in a constant state of terror by 
sending out marauding bands of his Indian allies, who com- 
mitted the most terrible atrocities. 

132. Peace : Results. — The war closed with a treaty made 
at Eyswick, Holland. Each nation retained the same terri- 
tory which it had held in the beginning. The chief result 
in the colonies was the spirit of confidence it planted in the 
New Englander's breast — he had waged successful warfare 
with the French regular at Port Royal. It also awakened 
that feeling of dependence upon one another, which, fostered 
by the succeeding colonial wars, culminated in complete 
organization in the trying days of the Revolution. 

QUEEN ANN-e'S war 

133. Cause — Parties Engaged. — Only five years of peace 
had been enjoyed by the colonists in America, when they 
were once more drawn into war by the opening of the great 
War of the Spanish Succession in Europe, a war in which 
France and England again took opposite sides. This time 
the French and Spanish colonies made common cause against 
the English colonies; who were therefore beset from all sides. 

134. The War in the North.— Though Port Royal had 
been captured in the last war by the colonists, its return to 
the French at the close, again made it a convenient rendez- 
vous for privateering expeditions down the coast. Two 
.unsuccessful attempts were made against it. Finally, in 

1710, a combined English and colonial army forced its sur- 
render. A similarly disastrous attempt to that made on 



108 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Quebec in the previous war left that stronghold to guard 
French dominion in the north, the English suffering the 
loss of many ships in a storm, with over one thousand men. 

135. The War in the South. — The southern colonists wel- 
comed the opportunity to chastise the Spanish on the Florida 
coast, and in the very first year of the war attacked St. 
Augustine. They had reckoned without their host, how- 
ever. The Spanish offered such spirited resistance that the 
siege was abandoned. A combined French and Spanish 
fleet attempted the capture of Charleston, South Carolina, 
in 1706, but were in turn repulsed, so that honors were 
equal in the south. 

136. Indian Atrocities. — As usual, the outlying settle- 
ments felt the horrors of war the most. With the French 
forts about the Great Lakes for rallying points, and their 
overflowing arsenals on which to draw, the Indians ravaged 
the frontier from Virginia to Maine, — the wholesale massacres 
at Deerfield and Haverhill being carried out with the most 
fiendish cruelties. 

137. Peace: Results.— The treaty of Utrecht (1713) ended 
the war, and for many years peace and prosperity reigned in 
America. The treaty provided for the retention of Port 
Royal by the English. In honor of Queen Anne its name 
was changed to Annapolis. Acadia, or Nova Scotia, was now 
retained by England. The treaty also gave to England New- 
foundland and the Hudson Bay territories, leaving Canada 
and the Mississippi valley still to be fought for. 

The feeling of interdependence received fresh stimulus 
among the colonists. The first war had held the interest 
only of the New England colonies. This second war had 
united both southern and northern colonies in a common 
cause. 

KING George's war 

138. French Fortification. — For thirty years after the treaty 
of Utrecht there was no fighting between the French and 
English in America. The French spent this time in build- 



THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 



109 



ing a chain of forts which should enable them to hold the 
Mississippi valley and New France against the English. 
These forts stretched from the mouth of the Mississippi to 
Detroit and thence along the lakes to Lake Champlain and 










Montreal. The French were also anxious to reconquer the 
territory lost by the treaty of Utrecht; so they built and 
fortified at great expense a point on Cape Breton called 
Louisburg. 

139. War Declared. — In 1744 war again broke out between 
France and England. This was known in the colonies as 
"King George's War," and gave the English colonists an 
opportunity to attempt the capture of Louisburg, which was 
now the strongest French fort in America except Quebec, 
and which threatened the English possessions in Nova Scotia. 
This was accomplished by a colonial force, four thousand 
strong, under General Pepperel of Maine, assisted by four 
British warships. 

140. Treaty.— The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) brought 
peace after four years, though it was but a short time until 
the two combatants were again active. The stronghold of 
Louisburg was returned to the French, in exchange for the 
military post of Madras in Hindustan; a piece of war politics 
• which greatly incensed the colonists, who had been at such 

expense to capture that stronghold. The king, however, 
paid back the money they had expended. 



110 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 

141. Parties and Causes. — Two powerful combinations 
strove for the mastery on the continent of Europe from 
1756 to 1763, England and Prussia being pitted against 
France and Austria. The colonists would no doubt have 
been drawn into it sooner or later in defence of their respec- 
tive sovereigns, but there 
were special reasons why 
they became involved some 
two years before actual hos- 
tilities began in Europe. As 
stated before, the French 
claimed the St. Lawrence 
valley, the country about the 
Great Lakes, and the Missis- 
sippi and Ohio valleys, by 
right of discovery and explo- 
ration. The English claimed 
the country from "sea to sea" 
by right of the Cabot dis- 
covery. By the middle of the 
eighteenth century these con- 
flicting claims began to cause 
much discord, especially in 
the Oliio valley. The king 
of England, desirous to se- 
cure the region from French 
control, offered a tract of 
immense extent to anyone who would settle one hundred 
families upon it. This led to the formation of the Ohio 
Company, which at once sent out surveyors. These move- 
ments roused the French. Prior to this they had sunk 
their metal plates bearing the insignia of France all along 
the valley. Already one line of forts extended from 
Chicago down the Illinois river to the Mississippi; a 
second reached from Detroit along the valley of the Wabash 




PART OF OXE OF THK METAL PLATES 



* THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 111 

to the Ohio. The French now began military occupa- 
tion of the valley and in addition to strengthening the 
forts already built, established a third line from Lake 
Erie down the course of the Allegheny river to the 
present site of Pittsburgh. 

142. Washington in Virginia's Service.— This action called 
for war, or a disavowal. Virginia had always claimed the 
territory by the reading of her charter, "west and north- 
west," and now took the initiative. George Washington 
was at this time adjutant-general of the Virginia militia. 
He was only twenty-one years of age, but had shown even 
thus early the qualities which afterward made him the great 
champion of his country's rights. He was commissioned 
to proceed to the nearest French fort and make formal 
demand for the withdrawal of the French troops from all 
that region. With seven companions, AYashington accom- 
plished this mission creditably, traveling over five hundred 
miles through a dense wilderness and returning in the dead 
of winter. He advised the immediate building of a fort at 
the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, and 
the governor sent a company of men to carry out this idea, 
Washington following with a military force sufficient to 
hold the fort when constructed. Bat the French had 
determined on fortifying this same point. They accord- 
ingly pushed rapidly south, and driving off the English 
vanguard before Washington could arrive, threw up 
fortifications which they called Fort Duquesne, and with 
that as a base advanced to meet the English. The 
death of his superior on the march from Virginia put 
Washington in full command of the expedition. In true 
Indian fashion he pushed rapidly to the front, ambuscaded 
the advance party of French, and drove them back with loss. 
He then selected a position and threw up rude fortifications 
which he called Fort Necessity. Here he was attacked by a 
combined force of French and Indians, who so outnumbered 
him tnat he was forced to capitulate. 



112 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

143. The Albany Convention. — While Washington was thus 
engaged in the effort to uphold English supremacy, there 
met at Albany a body of delegates from all the colonies 
north of Virgmia. This was the famous Albany convention, 
called at the suggestion of the Lords of Trade in London, 
for the purpose of treaty with the Iroquois. While it was 
in session Benjamin Franklin proposed, and the convention 
adopted, his ''plan for colonial union" — an action which 
marked a great forward step in the march toward a republic. 
This plan provided for a president-general, and a council 
of delegates from each colony, who should have control over 
Lidian affairs, and have power to raise and equip armies and 
raise taxes to pay for the same. This plan was submitted 
to the colonies and to the king, but was rejected by each 
for the same reason — it gave too much power to the other 
party. It was at this time that Franklin's account of the 
battle of Fort Necessity appeared in his newspaper, pub- 
lished in Philadelphia, headed by the illustration of a broken 
snake, under which was the legend, "Join or die." 

144. Proposed Outline of Attack. — The topography of the 
country and the situation of the French military posts clearly 
indicated three points of attack, — Fort Duquesne and north 
to the lakes; Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain, thence 
to Quebec; Acadia and Louisburg on the northern coast. 
These points were persistently attacked until each in turn 
yielded. 

145. Defeat of Braddock. — After Washington's misfortune 
at Fort Necessity, preparations were immediately begun for 
another expedition to the Ohio valley. The king sent over 
a body of regulars under General Braddock, and early in 
1755 he marched on Fort Duquesne with an army of two 
thousand two hundred men. Braddock was brave but con- 
ceited, and densely ignorant of frontier warfare. He declined 
the advice of Washington, or any of the colonial officers, and 
marched leisurely through the forest as if on a holiday excur- 
sion. French spies reported this, and though greatly infe- 



THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 



113 



rior in numbers, the French commander resolved to take 
advantage of Braddock's confidence and lead him into an 
ambuscade. Braddock turned a deaf ear to Washington's 






FORT FRONTENAC^. 



>^V i^^ ^^^^-^ $^ 

#5 - > •^''^f- "^r />^ vi 

^< '^^^^^* . ^ ""* W^ .^^r 






-5^ //;/<^ 


















-■^ ^S^*^ VENANGO * 
•^ -''+ FORT DUoJISNE-'i*; -^ ° ' 



1- -^ 

s^^* <?,^ fort; 

•^j NECESSITY 
f 






f^ 



persistent warnings. He fell into the ambush laid for him 
and his whole army was cut to pieces before it could be 
extricated. Braddock was carried from the field mortally 
wounded, and died a few days later. 



114 HISTORY OFTHE UNITED STATES 

146. The Acadians. — Many an act is looked upon as just 
in war which would be indefensible in peace. The removal 
of the Acadians from their homes in 1756 was such an act. 
Acadia comprised territory now covered chiefly by Nova 
Scotia. It changed hands according to the fortunes of war 
several times, but the French peasantry who inhabited it 
remained loyal to their sovereign. They had been under 
English rule since the fall of Port Royal in 1710, but had 
been allowed as great a degree of liberty, probably, as would 
have been accorded them by the French king. It is charged 
they abused this liberty by aiding the French during King 
George's War and in the present one. It was therefore 
proposed as a war measure to remove them from the region 
entirely. This was accomplished by an English force, who 
not only destroyed their homes, but drove them on board 
ship and distributed them among the English settlements — 
in many instances whole families being cruelly separated, 
beyond the hope or possibility of ever being reunited. The 
poet Longfellow has made this war incident the basis of his 
beautiful poem, "Evangeline." 

147. Louisburg. — This stronghold again became the bone 
of contention in the north. An expedition was organized 
against it in 1757, but after reaching the fort the attempt 
was abandoned, General Loudon refusing to attack. 1'he 
next year, with a force of ten thousand men and forty-one 
ships, the English succeeded in capturing the fortress. This 
time it was dismantled and Halifax was made the English 
point of rendezvous on the northern coast. 

148. Pitt and English Success. — On the part of the English 
the first three years of the war were marked with incompe- 
tency, both in the War Department at home and in the 
active operations on the field by the generals in charge. 
But a change in government brought William Pitt to the 
ministry. He immediately caused a change of policy, not 
only in the character of the men sent out, but in the treat- 
ment of the officers and men of the colonial forces. Here- 



THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 115 

tofore but scant recognition liad been given to provincial 
officers, no matter of how great merit. The colonial officers 
were now taken into consultation, and the men treated as 
regulars of the army. 

149. Contest for Supremacy in the Lake Country. — At the 
beginning of the war the French were masters of the Great 
Lakes and of Lake Champlain. At the head of Champlain 
were the strong forts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In 
1755 the English marched against Crown Point. The 
French commander left the fort and advanced south to Lake 
George. In the engagement the English were the victors, 
but failed to follow up their advantage. They retired and 
built Fort William Henry at the head of Lake George. In 
1757 the French general, Montcalm, captured this fort, the 
surrender being followed by an Indian massacre of unspeak- 
able cruelty. 

In 1758 the English and colonial army under Abercrombie 
made a determined effort to wrest this region from the 
French, but Abercrombie proved incompetent and his attack 
on Ticonderoga was repulsed with great loss. The colonial 
general, Bradstreet, soon after captured Fort Frontenac on 
Lake Ontario and with it supplies intended for Fort 
Duquesne, the loss of which had much to do with the aban- 
donment of that post on the approach of an English force 
under General Forbes and Washington, who, on taking 
possession, changed its name to Fort Pitt — the Pittsburgh 
of to-day. The following year the whole lake country was 
secured to the English by the surrender of Niagara after an 
extended siege, and the abandonment by the French of 
Ticonderoga on the approach of a formidable English force. 

150. The Taking of auebec—Wolfe— Montcalm.— The year 
1759 was one made memorable in English colonial history by 
the almost complete overthrow of the French. The north- 
west was freed by the gallant work of Shirley at Fort Niag- 
ara, and Lakes George and Champlain saw the last of the 
Frenchman as he retired before the advancing hosts of 



116 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Amherst. Both generals and their armies were to have 
joined "Wolfe at the crowning event of the year — the taking 
of Quebec — but they were too slow, and did not arrive in 
time. 

Quebec was a fortress of great strength, situated on a high 
bluff commanding the river. It was defended by sixteen 
thousand men under General Montcalm, one of the most 
competent of French generals, and of large fighting expe- 




rience. In June, General Wolfe sailed up the St. Lawrence 
with four thousand men. lie found the river obstructed as 
he neared Quebec and that city thoroughly prepared for 
attack. Wolfe was but thirty-three years of age and not in 
robust health, but he had shown fine qualities of generalship 
at the taking of Louisburg, and Pitt had confidence in his 
success. One by one the obstructions were cleared, and by 
the middle of the summer the lower part of the city and 
everything but the fort was at the mercy of the English. 
The fort seemed impregnable and Wolfe was in despair, for 
Montcalm could not be induced to give battle outside. 

The Plains of Abraham lay back of the fort on the heights. 
Could Wolfe but reach there the French would have to give 
battle. But for miles the banks of the ri^er rose in precip- 



THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 117 

itous bluffs, the summits of which were bristling with cannon. 
Finally a path was discovered leading to the heights, and 
Wolfe resolved on taking the desperate chance of scaling the 
bluffs. Sailing up the river at dark, to mislead the enemy, 
he embarked his army in small boats and dropping quietly 
back with the ebb tide, began the ascent. It proved 
arduous in the extreme, but the dawn found enough of his 
men on the heights to hold the position, and, with the 
rapidly arriving reinforcements, Wolfe soon found himself in 
command of three thousand five hundred picked men, eager 
for battle. Montcalm was not slow to see his peril. His 
army outnumbered that of W^olfe, but many were raw recruits. 
A bayonet charge was ordered. It was made with spirit, 
but the English met it with a murderous fire at close range, 
and then as the enemy wavered, they in turn used the bay- 
onet. Soon the French were in headlong retreat, and the 
day was won. Both generals were mortally wounded in the 
fight. Rousing from his lethargy, Wolfe was told of the 
retreat of the French. "God be praised, I die happy," cried 
the young general as he expired. Montcalm expressed relief 
that he should not live to see the fall of Quebec, which the 
English took five days later. 

151. The Passing of the French from America. — Quebec was 
the focus upon which all French hopes of success centered 
in the New World. It is true that a vast amount of terri- 
tory yet remained, and a determined effort was made to hold 
Montreal the next year, when it was besieged by the English 
under General Amherst ; but, deserted by his Indian allies, 
and being all but abandoned by the home government, the 
French commander capitulated. Thus the whole region 
came under English control, and French dominion in 
America was ended. During the latter part of the war, 
Spain had become involved and England had seized Havana 
and the Philippines. 

In the treaty of peace signed at Paris, (1763) France lost 
power in America. At the end of the war, the vast colonial 



118 



HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 



empire of New France — the richest possession in the New 
World — had dwindled to two small islands off the coast of 
Newfoundland — which the parent country was permitted to 
retain as fishing stations. 

France surrendered Canada to England, and with the 
Mississippi river as a dividing line, yielded to her hated 



wm 






jm' '" i"]9S ■"' 'PS 



'fMf^. 




AMERICA AT THE CLOSE OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 

rival all the territory east of that line — excepting the city of 
New Orleans and its adjacent territory. 

For assisting France in this war, Spain received New 
Orleans and all the territory west of the Mississippi. 

Spain, rather than lose Havana to the English, gave Eng- 
land Florida instead. 

At the time of the signing of the treaty the news of the 
capture of the Philippines had not been received in Europe. 
On learning of the caj)ture, England returned those islands 
to Spain without consideration. 

152. England and the Result. — Thus east of the Mississippi 
England was supreme. Tlio war of defence had ended in a 
war of conquest. She had wrested a vast territory from 
both Spain and France — indeed, had driven the latter from 



THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 119 

the New World. England had not been altogether blameless 
in this war, and through the folly of George III. and his 
new ministry (Pitt had resigned) was soon to receive her 
punishment, and from a source whence she least expected it 
— her own American colonies. It has been said that the 
complete triumph of England over France in the New World, 
made the American Revolution not only possible, but inevita- 
blCo Yergennes, the great French statesman, saw this at 
tlie time of the signing of the treaty in 17G3, when he sagely 
remarked, *'In winning Canada England has removed the 
only check which has served to keep her American colonies 
in awe." 

153. The Colonies and the Result. — The change of hands 
of a vast domain was the tangible result of the war, but 
more important were the lessons learned, and the experience 
gained by the colonists. The French war acted as a training 
school for the American officers, Washington and many 
others having gained valuable experience and measured brain 
and brawn with soldiers of lifelong experience. It also fur- 
nished an opportunity for the better acquaintance of the 
colonists. Boston was farther from New York then than is 
San Francisco now in point of time. There was little travel 
in those days, and the traditions of a century clung to each 
colony. This *' drinking from the same canteen" proved a 
powerful force in drawing the members of different colonies 
closer together. 

154. The Indian and the War. — In the war the Iroquois 
had assisted the English, while the Algonkin tribes, the 
Huron s of Canada, and the Indians between the Great Lakes 
and the Ohio, had assisted the French, During the war, 
and for many years after, these allies of the French kept the 
English frontier settlements in a state of terror. Immedi- 
ately after the close of the war, Pontiac, a powerful Indian 
chief, prevailed upon a large number of tribes to enter into 
a conspiracy, the avowed purpose of which was the wholesale 
massacre of the outlying English posts and settlements. 



120 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Though Detroit, in 1762, withstood a siege of five months, 
still, out of the twelve posts attacked, eight were taken and 
many English in the Ohio valley murdered. The savages 
were moving eastward into Pennsylvania, when they were 
met (1763) at Bushy Run, near Pittsburgh, by an English 
force from Philadelphia, which routed them after one of the 
most bloody battles ever fought with the Indians. In 1766 
a treaty of peace was negotiated with Pontiac at Oswego, 
New York. Three years later this powerful Ottawa chief, 
who hated the English and loved the French, was assassin- 
ated by an Indian bribed to commit the deed. 

155. George III. and the War. — The Seven Years' War in 
America had been brought to a successful close during the 
reign of George II., under the powerful Pitt ministry. 
Upon the king's death, George IIIo came into power (1760) 
and in the following year Pitt, who was out of harmony with 
the new order of things, resigned. It was unfortunate for the 
colonies and for England that a ruler of his narrow and 
obstinate type should have come into power just as the new 
expansion policy of the island kingdom had made it one of 
the greatest empires in the world. To formulate a fair and 
.just colonial government for these new possessions and retain 
the respect of the old colonies, was a problem far beyond 
his mean abilities. He attempted to interfere with freedom 
of speech, and curtailed the liberty of the press. By his 
stupidity and shortsighted policy of administration in the 
colonies he brought down upon his head the just censure of 
many of the wisest of England's statesmen. The arbitrary 
financial policy which he adopted toward the American col- 
onies made him one of the most despised rulers the colonies 
had ever known. His name was coupled in the colonial 
mind with the beheaded Charles L, and the banished James 
II. With Grenville, and later with Lord North as his chief 
advisers, the king and his ministry soon fulfilled the predic- 
tion of the French statesman and precipitated the American 
Revolution. He was king of England for sixty years, dying 



THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 121 

in 1820. His one redeeming characteristic lies in the fact 
that he was a devoted Christian and was pure and happy in 
his domestic life. 

156. Expansion Calls for New Government and Additional 
Expenses. — The boundaries of the thirteen colonies were in 
the main, except as to their western limit, fairly well defined; 
but England now came into possession of a territory which 
to retain she must prepare to defend against possible attacks 
from both France and Spain. This called for immediate 
action. Accordingly, in 1763 a proclamation was issued by 
the king, by which a small portion of the territory of Florida 
was annexed to Georgia, and the remainder divided into the 
two provinces of East and West Florida. As a third prov- 
ince, the king established the boundaries of Quebec, situated 
on both sides of the St. Lawrence River and extending south- 
ward as far as New York. These three provinces established, 
the proclamation then proceeded to give an exhibition of 
King George's shortsighted policy. This was in the fixing 
of "the proclamation line" on the crest of the Alleghany 
mountains. Starting in East Florida, it extended north- 
ward to Lake Champlain, following the headwaters of all the 
intervening streams, whose waters emptied into the Atlantic 
Ocean. All the territory extending west of this line to the 
Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Floridas, was 
set apart as Indian country, within the boundaries of which 
the colonists were forbidden to settle. The establishment 
of this proclamation line justly incensed the colonists. The 
attempt to shut them out of the very territory for which 
they had fought, and portions of which many of the colonies 
claimed by charter, provoked ill feeling at once. But the 
King George ministry did not stop at this. To garrison the 
many forts needed to defend this territory required ten 
thousand soldiers, and it was necessary to raise funds to sup- 
port them. This it was proposed to do both from English- 
men at home and Englishmen in the colonies. The latter 
were now to suffer a revival of the hated navigation laws, 



122 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

which had always been held in such contempt, — particularly 
in New England, where smuggling had been carried on for 
years. It was now proposed to punish, without grant of 
trial by jury, anyone suspected of violation of the navigation 
laws. This abolishing the right of trial by jury again in- 
censed the colonists. 

New England had built up a large trade with the West 
Indies in sugar and molasses. A tax was therefore levied on 
those commodities. This did not provide enough money, 
so a stamp tax was proposed. Thus the King George ministry 
began that unwise policy which precipitated the Revolution. 



CHAPTER VI 



THE COLONIES 



157. Development of the Colonies. — At the close of the 
French and Indian War, the thirteen English colonies had 
assumed such importance, as to now rank as the richest of 
England's possessions. They had increased rapidly in pop- 
ulation, and had already exhibited some distinctive features 
of their later national life; as is shown in a study of their 
social life, their occupations, their education, their literature, 
their attitude on the question of slavery, their political life, 
and their disposition at all times to assert their rights as 
free men. 

POPULATION" 

158. Population in the Colonies. — In the early history of 
the colonies there was a superstition against numbering the 
people, many thinking that diseases in the form of epidemics 
would follow the taking of a census. However, the colonial 
governors from time to time made estimates to the home 
government, which are believed to be nearly correct. Three 
of these estimates follow: First, that of 1701, at the begin- 
ning of QueenAnne's reign; another in 1755, at the beginning 
of the French and Indian AVar; and the third in 1775, at the 
beginning of the Eevolutionary War, covering in all a period 
of three-quarters of a century. 

123 



124 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



CEITSUS ESTIMATES 



THE THIRTEEN 
COLONIES 


Date of 
Settle- 
ment 


1701 


1755 


1775 


New England Colonies: 

New Hampshire 

Massachusetts 

Connecticut 


1623 
1620 
1635 
1636 


10,000 
70,000 
30,000 
10,000 


34.000 
200,000 
130,000 

40,000 


81,000 
335,000 
201 000 


Rhode Island 


61,000 











Total, including 14,000 Africai 


1 slaves . . . 




678,000 








Middle Colonies: 

New York 


1613 
1665 

1682 ) 
1638 \ 


30,000 
15,000 

20,000 


95,000 
83,000 

182,000 


188,000 


New Jersey 


124,000 


Pennsylvania 

Delaw^are 


302,000 







Total, including 32,000 African slaves 614,000 



Southern Colonies: 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North Carolina. . 
South Carolina . . 
Georgia 



1634 


25,000 


156,000 


1607 


40,000 


280,000 


1653 


5,000 


104,000 


1670 


7,000 


82,000 


1733 




6,000 



241,000 
525,000 
275,000 
187,000 
40,000 



Total, including 455,000 African slaves 


1,268,000 


Total 


262,000 
50,000 


1,392,000 
260,000 


2,560,000 


This includes African slaves. 


501,000 



In this table, the population of Pennsylvania and Dela- 
ware is counted together as Delaware did not have a separate 
organization until after the Revolution. 

159. Distribution of Population. — The above table shows 
that one-half of the whole population of the thirteen English 
colonies was in the southern colonies, while the New Eng- 
land and middle colonies combined contained the other 
half. During the period from 1700 to 1775 the population 
had increased in 

New Hampshire eightfold 

Massachusetts fivefold 

Connecticut sevenfold 



THE COLONIES 125 

Rhode Island sixfold 

New York sixfold 

New Jersey eightfold 

Pennsylvania and Delaware fif teenfold 

Maryland tenfold 

Virginia thirteenfold 

North Carolina fifty-fivefold 

South Carolina seventeenf old 

while Georgia, the last of the colonies to be settled, had 
increased her population from 1755 to 1775, sevenfold. 
Thus it will be seen that all the colonies were growing at a 
rapid rate. Their total population at the time of the Eevo- 
lution equaled one-fifth that of the mother country. Vir- 
ginia stood at the head of the census, with Massachusetts 
§econd. 

The settlements in the colonies were usually located on 
some bay or arm of the sea, along the courses of navigable 
streams, or in the rich valleys of the hill country. Often 
they were scattered far apart, with but poor means of com- 
munication. 

160. The Cities.— According to the census of 1900, fully 
one-third of the entire population of the United States is liv- 
ing in cities, as opposed to one-thirtieth in 1790. A much 
smaller proportion lived in cities at the time of the making 
of the above census estimates. The population of the five 
principal cities in 1790 was: 

New York 33,131 

Philadelphia 28,532 

Boston 18,038 

Charleston 16,359 

Baltimore 13,503 

At that time there were but thirteen cities in the colonies 
with more than five thousand inhabitants. This tells the 
story that the English colonists were largely engaged in 
agricultural pursuits. The name "colonial farmers," given 
to the soldiers of the patriot army of the Revolution, was not 



126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

misapplied. In the north the town constituted the unit of 
political organization; in the south, the county. Towns were 
the more numerous in the north. And yet, scattered 
throughout the colonies were many thriving villages and 
towns, which constituted the business and social centers in 
numerous settlements from New Hampshire to Georgia. In 
estimating the population of colonial cities it was the custom 
to count the number of houses and arrive at the total popu- 
lation by multiplying that number by seven. 

New York had become the trade center — her merchants 
supplying about one-sixth of the entire population of the 
colonies with goods imported from foreign countries. Wil- 
liamsburg, Va., was one of the most stylish places on the 
continent; Charleston, S. C, the gayest, and Annapolis, 
Md., excelled all others in elegance. Philadelphia, the 
largest city in the colonies, was noted for its regular streets 
and splendid sidewalks, and for its brick and stone residences. 
This city was the first to light its streets. New York soon 
followed. Boston did not light her streets until 1773. Each 
of these cities found it necessary to establish a night police 
force in order to preserve order within its limits. 

161. People not All English. — While these colonies are 
known as the English colonies, still it must not be concluded 
that the entire population was an English population. 

The Welsh had come with the English, and had formed 
many thriving settlements in New England, and also in the 
middle colonies. Eoger Williams, the founder of Ehode 
Island, was a Welshman, and William Penn made a grant of 
forty thousand acres, known as the Welsh Barony, to a 
colony from Wales. 

The Dutch had early occupied New Y^ork, and had soon 
established a line of settlements northward along the course 
of the Hudson, thence up the Mohawk Valley, and south- 
ward across New Jersey to the mouth of the Delaware, where 
as early as 1G55 they had conquered the Swedish settlements 
in that region. The Dutch had also extended their trading- 



THE COLONIES 127 

posts to the Connecticut Valley, and up Long Island 
Sound as far as Narragansett Bay. When the English 
appeared in JS'ew York harbor in 16G4, the Dutch yielded to 
English rule without a struggle. Absorbed in trade and 
indifferent to politics, they soon transferred their allegiance 
to the English king, and became loyal citizens of the colonies 
in which they continued to reside. At the time of the 
Revolution it is estimated that at least one-half the popula- 
tion of the state of New York was of Dutch descent. New 
Jersey, likewise, had a large Dutch population. To-day many 
families of New York are proud to trace their ancestry to 
these early Dutch settlers. Since the day of the publication 
of Washington Irving's "Knickerbocker's History of New 
York," these Dutch descendants in New York have been 
known as Knickerbockers. 

These Hollanders were an industrious people, active in 
the development of trade and commerce, and devoted to 
agriculture. Many historians have been bold to trace the 
ideas of our free school system, freedom of worship in mat- 
ters of religion, the recording of land deeds by the state, 
and the use of the ballot in popular elections, to the influ- 
ence and example of these early Dutch settlers. 

The Swedes, — always a liberty-loving and enterprising 
people, — on the advice of their king, the great Gustavns 
Adolphus, had settled New Sweden (Delaware) in 1638. 
They rapidly increased in population until conquered by the 
Dutch (1655), who in turn yielded to the English (1664). 
These early Swedish settlers belonged to the farming and mer- 
chant class, and, like the Dutch, had come to America for 
purposes of trade. They thrived under Swedish rule, and 
so continued under Dutch rule, and later under the fostering 
care of AVilliam Penn. The Swedish language was spoken 
in the settlements of the Delaware Valley, even after the 
Revolution. 

The Germans, too, flocked to America. While the 
Dutch and Swedes came for purposes of trade, the Germans 



128 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



BRIE l 



WILLIAMS! PENN. 



VT.SSY l\ 
T W 



A N 



O O II D 



came on account of the religious and commercial wars which 
were devastating the small states of Germany and ruining 
the German people. William Penn, anxious to secure this 
desirable class of colonists for Pennsylvania, made three 
visits to the German states for the purpose of encouraging 
the dissatisfied Germans to settle in his colony. As an 
immigration agent, Penn was very successful. It was esti- 
mated by Franklin in 1766 that the Germans constituted 

one-third of the entire 
population of Pennsylva- 
nia. Germantown, a sub- 
urb of Philadelphia, was 
planted by the Germans. 
It is said that as many 
as twelve thousand Ger- 
mans arrived in a single 
year. These people set- 
tled west and northwest 
of Philadelphia. Their 
descendants are still 
known as the "Pennsyl- 
vania Dutch." The 
Germans also settled in 
large numbers in the 
vicinity of Newburg, 
N. Y. ; in Maryland; 
in Virginia; in the Carolinas; and in Georgia. Like the 
Dutch, they were sober and industrious and indifferent to 
politics. They were true home builders and firm lovers of 
liberty. They were German Protestants, and in America 
desired nothing so much as to be left alone. They had an 
important influence on the development of manufactures 
in the colonies. 

The French. — The persecutions of the Huguenots 
(French Protestants) by the Catholics in France drove many 
of the Huguenots to seek homes in the English colonies. Many 






_J 



DUTCH PAMPHLET OF WILLIAM PENN 



THE COLOKIES 



129 



of them settled in Virginia, in the Carolinas, in Massachu- 
setts, and in New York. The Haguenots were farmers, mer- 
chants, and artisans. The artisan class of Huguenots greatly 
encouraged the development of manufactures in Boston, New 
York, Philadelphia, Charleston, and other cities. Paul 
Eevere, of Revolutionary fame, and John Jay, first chief- 
justice of the United States, were descendants of these early 
Huguenot refugees, as was also Peter Faneuil, who gave 
to Boston, Faneuil Hall, — the "cradle of liberty." 

The Scotch-Irish, the name given in America to the 
immigrants from North 
Ireland, came in large num- 
bers to America in the early 
part of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, settling in New Hamp- 
shire, and in other localities 
in New England and in 
New Jersey. However, the 
chief Scotch - Irish settle- 
ments were made in western 
and southwestern Pennsyl- 
vania, from which locality 
they pushed southward into 
the valley of the Shenan- 
doah in Virginia, and into 

the hill country of the Carolinas. The Scotch-Irish were 
in the main Presbyterians, and were an intensely independent 
and liberty-loving people. 

The American Nation. — The English, of course, made 
up the vast majority of the population in the thirteen original 
colonies, and were gradually changing these foreign com- 
munities into English-speaking peoples. When George III. 
came into power (1760) a new nation was already forming 
out of these various race elements which within the next 
quarter of a century was to take its place among the nations 
of the world — to be known henceforth as the American nation. 




FANEUIL HALiIi 



130 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



SOCIAL LIFE 

162. Class Distinction. — There was an aristocratic feeling 
of a certain kind in nearly all the colonies, but this feeling 
was strongest in the southern colonies. In New York the 
old Dutch families and the rich English traders made up the 
aristocratic class; in Pennsylvania the Quakers held aloof 
from the Germans and the Scotch-Irish; the Puritan cus- 
toms of New England made all classes nearly on a level, 
although even the so-called "upper class" was found there. 
The most distinct difference, however, was recognized in the 
south between the rich planters and the poorer class of small 
landholders. 

This distinction of class was recognized in the churches, 
where the congregation was seated according to rank, and 
also in the colleges, where students were 
enrolled according to the rank of the 
parents. Washington belonged to the aris- 
tocratic class. He had his coat of arms 
engraved on his coach and harness — a cus- 
tom which prevailed among the "gentlemen" 
of Virginia and in other of the southern 
wASHiNGTox-s COAT colomcs, aud was not unknown in Boston, 

OF ARMS ' ' 

New York, and Philadelphia. 
This class distinction has decreased with the years. It was 
stronger in colonial times than it is at the present day. 
Then the terms Mr., Mrs., and Miss were applied to min- 
isters, their wives and daughters, and to persons of rank. 
The "common people" were addressed as "goodman" and 
"goodwife." Whatever of social prejudice existed had been 
brought over from the old world. Each community from 
the beginning boasted of its "leading families"; this was 
particularly true in the south. 

163. Dress. — Class distinction was recognized even in the 
dress of the colonists. This custom, too, had been brought 
over from Europe, and prevailed throughout the colonies. 




THE COLONIES 



131 



As the period of the Revolution approached, Puritan customs 
had given way somewhat to the manners and customs of the 
Cavalier. The colonial gentleman of the period had his 
morning and his evening costume, and when he walked on 
the streets with his gold-headed cane, he enveloped himself 
in a handsome cloak, which glittered with gold lace. The 
silver snuffbox was always a sure sign of his social position — 
snuff being generally used by the aristocratic class in those 
days. Homespun goods made the ordinary clothing of the 
middle and poorer 
classes. Maidservants 
wore short gowns of 
coarse material, and 
received but a miser- 
able pittance for their 
yearly wages. The 
working class, the day- 
laborers, farmers, and 
mechanics, were also 
attired in clothing of 
the coarsest material, 
with leather breeches 
and heavy cowhide 
boots or shoes — all 
home-made. Calfskin 
shoes were used by 
This was the period when brass buckles 
and buttons were used to excess. On Sunday even the 
coarsest shoes were adorned with brass buckles, and the 
clothing of the aristocracy as well as the homespun attire 
of the other classes, was profusely decorated with brass or 
silver buttons. 

This was also the day of wigs and outlandish headgear, as 
is shown in so many of the pictures of the time. The 
Puritan was no more a "roundhead*' — a term by which he 
had been known in the days of Cromw^ell. The New Eng- 





COSTUME OF CAVALIER 



the higher classes. 



COSTUME OF PURITAN 



132 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



land Puritan, like the Cavalier of Virginia, now wore the 
most elaborate head dress. Indeed, it is said that in 1750 
nearly everybody wore wigs — men, women, and children of 
all classes — except slaves and convicts; even paupers wore 
them. 

164. Home Comforts: Food. — The wealthier class, both 
in the cities and in the conntry, lived in fine old colonial 
mansions, while the log cabins of tlie early colonial days still 
dotted the hills and valleys of the farming districts at the 




NKW ENGLAND KITCHEN 



time of the Revolution. In the sonth the slaves lived 
apart from their masters, often in the meanest of huts or 
shanties. 

The kitchen with its wide fireplace was an important room 
in the dwellings of all classes. The term *'New England 
kitchen" even to-day calls np pictures of plenty of room, 
abundance of provisions, and delightful home comforts. 

The furniture in the homes was ordinarily of the simplest 
sort. However, the homes of the wealthier class in the 



THE COLONIES 



133 



south, and indeed in all sections, were filled with the best of 
furniture — some of it imported from Europe, though much 
of it home-made and of the style now known as "colonial." 

Stoves were first introduced about 1700, and by the time 
of the Revolution had been greatly improved. Franklin 
invented a stove knoAvn as the Franklin stove, which was 
extensively used, though no dwelling was felt to be complete 
without its full number of fireplaces. 

Though pewter was in common use and the rich had sil- 
verware, much of the tableware was still made of wood. About 
the year 1700 forks came into 
general use. Glass windows 
and paper-hangings were first 
used in dwellings about 1750. 
Potatoes came into general 
use as food about 1720. By 
the time of the Revolution tea 
and coffee had become popu- 
lar, tea being used by nearly 
all classes. Bread made from 

corn, wheat or rye, constituted the "staff of life." 
land abounding in wild game, much flesh was eaten. 

165. Habits: Laws and Penalties. — Tobacco and liquor 
were used freely. Even some of the women used snuff, and 
not a few smoked. Drunkenness was common. 

The people as a whole frowned upon all vicious and evil 
habits. Church attendance and private conduct were regu- 
lated by law. The "Blue Laws" of Connecticut were, in this 
particular, severe in the extreme. 

The whipping post, the pillory, and the stocks awaited 
their victims at all times. Drunkenness, swearing. Sabbath 
breaking, pilfering, lying, stubborn disobedience of children, 
scolding, law-breaking, running in debt, and even dressing 
beyond one's station in life, were severely punished. 

Penalties were frequently out of proportion to offenses 
committed. Punishments were, at times, extremely cruel, 




WASHINGTON'S BED 



The 



134 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



even barbarous — a slave being burned for the murder of his 
master, and a wife for the murder of her husband. Cutting 
off an ear and branding on the forehead were penalties fre- 
quently inflicted. 

Out of this stern and rugged life came a sturdy and a 
happy people, who were firm believers in right living and 
right doing. And yet, while the conduct of the people was 
regulated with reference to the teachings of the Bible, and 
while the standard of morals was high, many customs 
were practiced in the colonial period which Avould not now be 
tolerated. Lotteries, which are to-day placed under the ban 

of law in every state 
in the Union, were 
in that day recog- 
nized in all sections 
as a legitimate 
means of raising 
money for public 
purposes — "to 
build churclies, to 
aid the deserving 
poor, to erect light- 
piLLdiiY AND sT(x'Ks h o u s c s, collegcs, 

buildings, and 
bridges." Faneuil Hall, Boston, when destroyed by fire, 
was rebuilt by lottery. During the trying days of the Rev- 
olution, when money was scarce, it was proposed to raise 
money for the "next campaign" by lottery. 

166. Religion. — The colonists were a profoundly religious 
people. The clergy in nearly all sections were of a superior 
class. Those of New England and of the Carolinas excelled 
all others in breadth of learning and scholarship. The Puri- 
tans of New England as w^ell as the Germans, the Dutch, the 
Quakers, and the Scotch-Irish of the other colonies hated the 
Established Church of England. In New York, in Virginia, in 
Maryland, and in the colonies farther south, this church had 




THE COLOXIES 135 

been established. It was not popular with the masses in New 
York because the clergy were bitter in their opposition to all 
other forms of church service. Their attitude provoked 
dissensions in Virginia and Maryland as well. The attempt 
of the Established clergy to fasten the Established Church 
upon the colonies and to uphold the authority of the bishops 
was indignantly resented. ''No Bishops" and "No Estab- 
lished Church" became cries which were heard down to the 
time of the Eevolution and had not a little to do with unit- 
ing the colonies against England at that time. 

In some sections the clergy of the Established Church were 
not even godly men, "concerning themselves more for tithes 
than for souls." Their reckless and careless habits caused 
"as bad as a Maryland parson" to become a proverb in the 
colonies. 

The majority of the colonists were Protestants. At the 
time of the Eevolution it is said that every Protestant sect 
then known was represented in America. There were Con- 
gregationalists, Presbyterians, Dutch Eeformed, Baptists, 
Episcopalians, Quakers, Lutherans, and Methodists. The 
Catholics were strongest in Maryland. The religious dis- 
putes of that day were very heated ; at times bitter. 

167. Amusements. — There were few forms of amusement 
in the colonies. Husking bees and quilting bees were 
common in all sections and dancing in some, though the lat- 
ter was generally prohibited in New England and among the 
Quakers. The theater was not tolerated, yet traveling 
museums interested all the people. The church, or "meet- 
ing house," was the common meeting place of all classes and 
afforded an opportunity for exchanging gossip and bits of 
conversation. Thus the church service in many localities 
was apt to be an all-day service, with a good portion of the 
time taken up in visiting. The "town meetings" in the 
New England colonies also furnished an opportunity for 
relaxation and entertainment. Even funerals, it is said, 
furnished a kind of "melancholy entertainment." Perhaps 



136 



HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 



at no period in the history of America were funerals so 
unnecessarily expensive as in that early colonial day — all 
because they afforded the people a chance for pomp and 
show, and at the same time furnished an occasion for assem- 
bling together. Public executions and hangings were also 
thus taken advantage of by the people. In Xew York and 
in the south, bands of concert singers or strolling actors 
made frequent appearance. 

The rich planters in the south delighted in tlie pursuit of 
the chase — each keeping a pack of well-trained hounds. 
Horse-racing was common in the south. In the rural dis- 
tricts of all sections, games and amusements calling for "trial 
of strength" were indulged in. Thus wrestling, running, 
jumping, and ''throwing the stone" furnished amusement 

for large gatherings 
of people. The games 
of "fox and geese," 
and "nine men's mor- 
ris" were also very 
popular. The male 
residents in many 
a neighborhood 
amused themselves by "shooting at the mark," a practice 
which developed superior marksmanship among the early 
pioneers. From this rural class came the sharpshooters of 
the Kevolution. 

168. Mode of Travel. — The usual mode of travel was on 
foot or horseback, and by water; though in the southern 
colonies the rich planters rode in a coach and six, accom- 
panied by mounted servants. Chaises came in with the 
Revolution. Travel by land was always a hardship, since 
the roads were poor and ferries and fords not well located. 
A stage route was early established between Providence and 
Boston, which took two days for the trip. Later a similar 
route was established between New York and Philadelphia, 
requiring three days for the trip. In 1766 this time was 




STAGE COACH 



THE COLONIES 



137 



^i'- - 




f^^^- 



reduced to two days, whereupon the coach making the trip 
was called a ''flying machine." 

Travel by water was even more tedious than travel by land. 
It took six days to go from New York to Albany on the 
Hudson Eiver. 
Boats sailed only 
at intervals be- 
tween Boston 
and New York; 
between New 
York and Phil- 
adelphia; and 
between P h i 1 - 
adelphiaand "-;:'.''' 

■*• INN 

Charleston. 

Such a thing as comfort in travel was not known in those 
days. This kept the vast majority of people shut up in 
their own settlements. When a traveler arrived, he was the 
center of interest — he had brought news from the outside 
world. The inns or taverns by the roadside proved, in 
those days, poor stopping places for the tired traveler. 

OCCUPATIONS AND MONEY 

169. Occupations. — Agriculture formed the chief industry 
of the people, but in all sections farmers and planters were 
slow to introduce improved methods. Through long use the 
farm land had become "worn out" in many sections. Frank- 
lin recommended fertilizers, but the whole question of thus 
enriching the soil was little understood. Rotation in crops 
was not even thought of. Farm implements were crude and 
far from perfect. The hoe for the cultivation of his grain, 
and the flail for the thrashing of his wheat and rye, consti- 
tuted the farmer's implements. 

Sheep and cattle and swine were raised in abundance, 
though there was a tendency on the part of England to 
discourage the raising of sheep in the colonies, lest the 



138 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



colonists engage in the manufacture of woolen goods. Corn 
and wheat were the staple products of the northern colonies. 
Tobacco, rice, indigo, and corn were the chief products in 
the south, though much wheat was raised in Maryland and 
Virginia. The Germans in Pennsylvania were the best 
farmers. Maryland made the best flour. 

Manufacturing was discouraged by Great Britain. Ship- 
building not being discouraged, New England became one of 
the greatest ship-building countries in the world, supplying 
nearly one-third of all the ships used by England. Not 

able to pay the price asked for 
imported English goods and 
wares, the mass of the colonists 
were forced to manufacture 
tlieir own clothing, hats, paper, 
farm implements, cutlery, and 
household furniture. In almost 
every home was a spinning 
wheel, each household spinning 
its yarn and weaving its fabrics 
by hand. 

Lumbering, and the manufac- 
ture of barrel staves, and other 
articles of commerce were car- 
ried on in New England. The iron mines of Pennsylvania 
and Maryland were opened and furnaces set up as early 
as 1740. However, manufactures from iron were early 
prohibited by parliament, though these two colonies were 
permitted to ship pigiron to England. The whole policy of 
the mother country was to keep the colonies dependent 
upon Great Britain by prohibiting manufacturing. The 
people on the coasts of New England were extensively engaged 
in fishing. 

The colonies traded among themselves, but England dis- 
couraged even this; and in case of some commodities, 
prohibited trade altogether. A flourishing commerce had 




SPINNING WHEEL 



THE COLONIES 139 

Sprung up between New England and the West Indies, New 
England exchanging her timber, ships, and rum for the 
sugar and molasses of the West Indies. 

170. Money. — In the early history of tbe colonies, dried 
codfish, wampum, firs, bullets, corn, lumber, and even 
cattle, constituted money. A few of the colonies passed 
laws making some of these articles a legal tender in 
payment of debts and taxes. As early as 1650 the exports of 
Massachusetts had brought much gold and silver Spanish coin 
into the New England colonies. As a check on the circula- 
tion of this Spanish coin, a mint was set up at Boston in 
1652 to make a set of coins for home circulation. Laws 
were passed which forced holders of Spanish coin to have 
their money recoined into New 
England coin at this mint. Tlie 
Boston mint was discontinued in 
1688. The money issued by it 
became known as the "pine tree 

currency" — due to the represen- T^^e tree smLLixa 

tation of a pine tree on one side 

of the coin. Of course English and Dutch money early 
came into use in the colonies. 

Massachusetts issued paper money in 1690, and all the 
other colonies by 1750 had followed her example. Money 
values were measured in English pounds, shillings, and 
pence up to the time of the Revolution, when dollars and 
cents came into general use. Banks were established in 
some of the larger cities. However, the banks of colonial 
days were merely banks of issue, or loan banks. They did 
not receive deposits. 

EDUCATION" 

171. In New England. — As early as 1647 the general 
.court of Massachusetts declared that every town or dis- 
trict of fifty families should support a common school and 
that every town of one hundred families or over, should 




140 HISTOKY OF THE UXITED STATES 

support a grammar school of sufficient grade to prepare 
young men for Harvard College, which had been founded in 
1636. Thus was founded the American public school sys- 
tem. The Massachusetts plan spread to every district in 
New England, so that by the time of the Eevolution there 
was hardly a native born person twenty-one years of age in 
all New England who conld not read and write. It is esti- 
mated at this time that the six hundred thousand people of 
New England constituted the best educated body of people in 
the world. They had their academies and colleges, and 
many of their leaders were college bred men. 

The "town meetings" had their part in the education of 
the people of New England. They afforded a means of inter- 
change of ideas on all 
matters pertaining to 
local and colonial affairs. 
In these meetings every- 
one had a right to speak 
and to vote. The major- 
ity ruled. Here the peo- 
ple learned to debate 
well and to become fear- 
AN EARLY scHo^HousE Icss advocatcs of what 

they believed to be right 
in politics and religion. They were familiar with the colonial 
charters, with the powers of the British government, and 
were always ready with a written argument, protest, or peti- 
tion, when colonial rights were being interfered with. 

172. In the Middle Colonies, education was not neglected. 
Some historians insist that the Dutch had founded a free 
school system in New York even before the Puritans had 
founded one in Massachusetts. A few New Englanders had 
migrated to New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, 
and even into some sections of the southern colonies, and 
wherever they went they set up the free public school. The 
first girls' school in the colonies was established at Lewiston, 




THE COLONIES 141 

Delaware. When the Quakers settled Pennsylvania in 1682, 
they established a public school system which gradually spread 
throughout the Quaker settlements of that colony. The 
Scotch-Irish, too, were believers in education and early 
looked after the education of their children. The middle 
colonies, like the New England colonies, had their colleges 
and academies, which took high rank. 

173. In the Southern Colonies, however, education was 
most sadly neglected, though Virginia boasted of the second 
oldest college in the United States — the William and Mary 
College. Some of the royal governors of the south were 
opposed to the education of the common people. Governor 
Berkeley of Virginia protested against public schools and 
printing presses in these oft-quoted words: "Thank God! 
there are no free schools nor printing presses, and I hope 
there will be none for a hundred years." This wish 
was nearly fulfilled — the first newspaper in Virginia was 
not set up until 1736, and even then was controlled by 
the government. However, some localities in the south 
believed in education. Maryland established free schools in 
1696 and a free school was opened in Charleston in 1712. 
Private schools, which are still so numerous in the south, 
were established in many places. It must be remembered 
that negro slaves made up one-third of the population of the 
southern colonies and that the eight hundred thousand white 
population of that section were scattered over a vast terri- 
tory. The rich planters of the south, and all others who 
could afford to do so, sent their sons to England to be 
educated. Many students from the south attended college 
in the northern and middle colonies, or were educated by 
private tutors at home. 

174. The Colleges. — At the time of the Revolution the 
colonies boasted of nine colleges. Three were controlled 
by Episcopalians, three by Congregationalists, and one 
each by the Presbyterians, by the Dutch Reformed Church, 
and by the Baptists. The influence of these early colleges 



142 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

on the intellectual development of the colonial period cannot 
be estimated. They were veritable centers of education. 
They scattered throughout the colonies a vast number of 
young men who became leaders of many a community in the 
trying days of the Revolution. 

Harvard College, founded at Cambridge, Mass., in 1G36, is 
the oldest college in the United States. It was named after 
a learned Englishman, John Harvard, who in his will left 
the college his library and five thousand dollars in money. 
To-day it is known as Harvard University, the largest insti- 



tution of learning in America. The orator, Edward Everett, 
John Adams, John Quincy Adams, the historian Sparks, 
and the four great authors, Emerson, Longfellow, Lowell, 
and Holmes, have issued from its halls. 

William and Mary College was established in 1G93 at 
Williamsburg, the capital of Virginia. It was named after 
the king and queen of England. George Washington was at 
one time its president. It counted among its students 
three presidents of the United States, — Jefferson, Monroe, 
Tyler, — one chief justice, John Marshall, and one great 
American general, Winfield Scott. 



THE COLONIES 143 

Yale College was founded in 1700, at New Haven, Conn., 
by the action of ten Congregational ministers, who in that 
year gave books from their own libraries for the founding of 
a college in Connecticut. It received its name from Elihu 
Yale, who became an early friend of the college, giving it 
many valuable gifts of books and money. Nathan Hale 
was one of its graduates. 

The College of New Jersey, now known as Princeton Uni- 
versity, was founded in 1746, by the Presbyterians. One of 
its early presidents was John AVitherspoon, a signer of the 
Declaration of Independence. James Madison and Aaron 
Burr were among its graduates. 

King's College, later Columbia College, and still later the 
Columbia University, was founded in 1755, in New York 
City. Among its students was Alexander Hamilton. 

The University of Pennsylvania was first established as a 
charitable school in 1745. Four years later it became an 
academy and received a charter as a college in 1755 — the date 
from which it counts its beginning. It was created a uni- 
versity in 1779. Benjamin Franklin was its founder. 

Brown University, first known as Rhode Island College, 
was founded at Warren, and removed to Providence, R. I., 
in 1770. It was established by the Baptists. 

Rutgers' College, the old Queen's College of colonial days, 
was founded by the Dutch Reformed Church in 1770, at 
Brunswick, N. J. 

Dartmouth College was chartered in 1769 at Hanover, 
N. H. It numbers among its graduates America's greatest 
orator, Daniel Webster. 

Nearly all the colleges were closed during the Revolution- 
ary war, but were reopened immediately after the signing of 
the treaty at the close of the war in 1783. 

BOOKS AND LITERATURE 

175. Books, Newspapers, and Pamphlets. — The first print- 
ing press in the colonies was set up at Cambridge, Mass., 



144 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 

in 1639. The first book printed was a poetical translation 
of the Psalms, which became known as the New England 
Hymn Book. One of the editors of this book was the great 
Indian missionary, John Eliot. The colonial books of that 
day were mostly collections of sermons, or reprints of old 
authors. 

At the breaking out of the Ee volution there were but 
thirty-seven newspapers in the colonies. Of these, Massa- 
chusetts had seven. New York three, and Pennsylvania 
eight. The newspapers of that day were not much larger 
than a magazine page of the present day, and contained 
but four pages. Paper was very scarce, and it was necessary 



THE 

CONTINENTAL JOURNAL, 

AND 

WEEKLY ADVERTISER. 


THURSDAY, 


Afril 3, 1783 [NvMB CCCLXXU-l 


BOSTON: Printed 


BY JOHN GILL, IN Court Street. 


Tl.. »MTIMr»09«.ITr Of EVEBY JTATE , 


t = T, UPCK THE »„C,P1.,^C OF ,T-J AKMY. THt «.HS or. ►»«...*. 



for the editor to condense his news into the smallest possible 
space. The editor issued his papers weekly, monthly, or 
at "odd times." The "Boston News Letter," published at 
Boston in 1704, was the first newspaper published in the 
colonies. The first daily newspaper in America, the 
"American Daily Advertiser," was not issued until after the 
Kevolution, in 1784. The freedom of the press was denied 
by* the colonial governors. The editor of the "Weekly 
Journal" of New York was arrested in 1732 for having 
criticised the governor and the New York legislature for 
laying illegal taxes on the colony. The editor, at his own 
request, was given the right of trial by jury. He secured 
able counsel, and although not permitted to prove the truth 



THE COLONIES 145 

of his charges, his lawyer made such an eloquent plea to the 
jury that that body, setting all law aside, acquitted the 
editor amid the cheers of the populace, — thus was the free- 
dom of the press secured to the colonies long before news- 
papers in England enjoyed the privilege. 

However, while this was not the age of newspapers, it was 
the age of the "pamphleteer" — a name given to one who 
writes pamphlets. Hundreds of pamphlets were published 
and circulated throughout the colonies on a variety of topics. 
They proved a great source of education to the reading 
public, as they were usually written by the ablest men in the 
colonies. These jDamphlet writers did a great work in pre- 
paring the public mind for the coming struggle with Great 
Britain. 

176. Literature. — But little attention was paid to litera- 
ture at this period of colonial history. Increase Mather and 
his son, Cotton Mather, are said to have been the founders 
of American literature. Increase Mather was one of the 
early presidents of Harvard College. His list of published 
Avorks numbers one hundred and thirty-six volumes, the 
one on "Remarkable Providences," published in 1634, being 
his chief work. Cotton Mather wrote (1702) a religious 
history of New England, which he called "Magnalia." Even 
at this day it is read with interest by many. It contains a 
vast amount of information concerning the early history of 
New England, largely set forth in biographies of leading 
divines and civil officers. 

The two greatest names in American literature prior to 
the Revolution were those of Jonathan Edwards and Benja- 
min Franklin. These two men were the only two men in 
America recognized in Europe on account of their superior 
scholarship. Edwards's greatest work was his essay on the 
"Freedom of the Will." He was a profound thinker and left 
his mark upon the religious literature of America for a 
hundred years. The poet Oliver Wendell Holmes was a 
student of the life and times of Jonathan Edwards. It was 



146 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 

Jonathan Edwards whom Holmes had in mind when he 
wrote his wonderful satire, The "Deacon's Masterpiece," 
now more popularly known as the '* Wonderful One Hoss 
Shay." 

177. Benjamin Franklin. — However, Benjamin Franklin's 
name is the greatest name of American literature ii. the 
eighteenth century. In 1732 he began the publication of 
"Poor Richard's Almanac" at Philadelphia, which he con- 
tinued to issue annually for the next twenty-five years. 
Poor Richard's sayings laid hold upon the people and became 
part of their daily conversation. It was he who gave us the 
maxims, "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, 
wealthy and wise" ; "Honesty is the best policy" ; "A stitch 
in time saves nine"; "God helps them that help them- 
selves"; and hundreds of other short, pithy sayings which 
go to make up the common-sense views of our every-day life. 
Franklin also wrote essays on religious, moral, political, 
and economical subjects. His "Autobiography" takes rank 
to-day as one of the classics in our literature. His style is 
smooth and beautiful, clear and logical. Edwards was a 
college graduate — at the time of his death he was president 
of Princeton University. Franklin was a self-educated man. 
He came from the lower class of New England, but by his 
energy, perseverance, and native ability became the leading 
man of the American colonies, and prior to the Revolution 
was recognized in the Old AVorld as the first man in Amer- 
ica. Even after the Revolution his name was always coupled 
with that of Washington in the mind of the European. He 
amassed a fortune. He was interested in science and inven- 
tion. With the aid of a kite in 1752 he discovered the 
identity of electricity and lightning. He invented the 
lightning rod and the Franklin stove. He published the 
best newspaper in the colonies, the Pennsylvania Gazette, 
at Philadelphia, where he took delight in republishing old 
classics with his own imprint on the title page. He was 
proud to be known as "Benjamin Franklin, printer." He 



THE COLONIES 147 

established a library and a hospital in Philadelphia, and 
founded the University of Pennsylvania in 1755. He was 
the first to propose a union of the American colonies at the 
Albany Convention, in 1754. As agent for Massachusetts 
and Pennsylvania, he ably defended the colonies before par- 
liament during the exciting times preceding the outbreak of 
the Revolution. He perfected the postoffice system in 
America. During the Revolution he represented the col- 
onies at the court of France. In the field of diplomacy he 
has never been surpassed. In many respects Benjamin Frank- 
lin was one of the most remarkable men America has yet 
produced. 

178. Libraries. — Franklin founded a free library at Phila- 
delphia in 1731. Near the same time a public library was 
founded at Newport, Rhode Island, and in 1754 the city of 
New York established a public library for the accommoda- 
tion of the reading public. Charleston had a public library 
in 1700 — perhaps the oldest in America. At the middle of 
the eighteenth century the colonies were very prosperous and 
the founding of libraries and hospitals and charitable insti- 
tutions was a natural outgrowth of this prosperity. 

SLAVERY AND INDENTED SERVICE 

179. Slavery in the Colonies. — By the treaty of Utrecht at 
the close of Queen Anne's War (1713) Great Britain was 
given a complete monojioly of the slave trade between Africa 
and the Spanish West Indies. This trade proved a source of 
great wealth to Great Britain, and immensely increased the 
traffic in African slaves in Europe and America. Many of 
the colonies desired to prohibit the importation of slaves, but 
this Great Britain would not permit, forcing slavery upon 
them. Slavery, as we have seen, was first introduced into 
Virginia, in 1619, by a Dutch man-of-war. The Dutch soon 
after introduced the system into their own colony of New 
York. They also carried their slaves with them into New 



148 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Jersey, and later into Delaware, when they conquered the 
Swedes in that colony. 

The Swedish colony of Delaware and the Governor Ogle- 
thorpe colony in Georgia, were the only American colonies 
where slavery was absolutely prohibited at the beginning. 
As we have seen, the Dutch introduced slavery into Dela- 
ware; Georgia remained a free colony for sixteen years after 
its founding, when (1749) on a petition of her settlers for 
the "one thing needful" parliament repealed the prohibition 
against slavery. Thus it appears that each of the American 
colonies held slaves within its borders. 

180. Sentiment Against Slavery. — Slavery existed in the 
Old World as a recognized institution, under the control of 
law. It is, therefore, not surprising that it was soon trans- 
planted to America. Nearly all the colonies accepted slavery 
as a custom and sought early to control and regulate it, or 
to restrict it by law — some sought to prohibit it altogether. 
As tlie period of the Revolution approached, public senti- 
ment in the colonies was setting in strongly against slavery. 
There were leaders who opposed it in all the colonies from 
New Hampshire to Georgia. In the south George Washing- 
ton, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Patrick Henry, 
George Mason, and Henry Laurens opposed it, and deplored 
its existence in their section — each hoping that in some way 
not yet imagined its gradual and peaceful abolition might be 
accomplished. Slavery was felt to be opposed to tlie spirit 
of the times and met with opposition in many sections on 
high moral grounds. In 1760, the Quaker church in Penn- 
sylvania made slave holding and slave trading a matter of 
church discipline. There was a general feeling that the system 
was evil in itself and that it was desirable to rid the country 
of it by gradual abolition. 

181. Number of Slaves. — From the beginning, the white 
race in the cold north colonies had found it easier to do work 
for itself than to compel work from the slaves; while in the 
warmer south it was found easier for the white man to com- 



THE COLONIES 149 

pel work from the slave than to do it himself. As a result, 
the slave population was greatest in the south, where slave 
labor proved very profitable in the cultivation of tobacco, 
rice, cotton, and the indigo plant. Indeed, New York and 
New Jersey were the only northern colonies where slaves were 
held in large numbers. 

Of the total population in 1701, fifty thousand were negro 
slaves. Ten thousand of these were north of Mason and 
Dixon's line (the boundary line between Pennsylvania and 
Maryland) and forty thousand in the colonies south of that 
line. This was before Great Britain had secured a monopoly 
of the slave trade in the West Indies. In the census of 1755 
the number of slaves had increased to two hundred and sixty 
thousand — about thirty thousand were in the New England 
and middle colonies, and the remainder (two hundred and 
thirty thousand) in the southern colonies. In 1775 the 
number had still further increased to forty-six thousand 
north of Mason and Dixon's line, as opposed to four hundred 
and fifty-five thousand south of it. 

These figures show how slowly slavery was increasing in 
the north and also how alarming was its increase in the 
south — the negro slaves constituting one-third of the entire 
population of that section. It is not surprising, therefore, 
that Washington and Jefferson, as well as other able leaders 
in the south, looked upon the growing slave population of 
their section with the greatest alarm. The condition of the 
slaves was far better in the northern colonies than in the 
southern. In the north the slaves were used as domestic 
servants, while in the south they constituted the vast major- 
ity of the field laborers. 

182. Slave Laws. — Numerous slave laws were passed by the 
colonial legislatures. In the southern colonies, the laws were 
largely in the interest of the master as against the slave. 
In the northern colonies, where public sentiment was 
strongly against the system of slavery, the laws were in 
the main against the master and aimed to lessen the 



150 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

hardships of the "bound" class. Still, in all the colonies 
severe laws for the punishment of runaway slaves were 
passed. Persons aiding slaves to escape, or secreting them 
after escape, were held liable to punishment. A slave 
committing a crime was punished by death, and that, too, 
whether his crime was theft or murder. Even the masters 
who failed to punish their runaway slaves were themselves 
punishable by law. 

The forms of punishment usually visited upon the slave by 
the master were flogging, branding with a red-hot iron, or 
the cutting off of an ear. In some colonies, should a slave 
die while receiving punishment, his master would not be 
molested unless it were shown that he intended to commit 
murder. In such an event, a fine would be imposed and 
the master released. 

183. Indented Servants. — As we have already seen in the 
history of Virginia, white slavery was permitted in that col- 
ony uuder the name of "indentured servants." These 
"indented" white persons were sometimes called "redemp- 
tioners," because they could redeem themselves by their 
labor. Indented service existed in all the American colonies, 
— it was especially common iti A^irginia and Maryland. There 
were two classes of these servants — those who voluntarily sold 
themselves, and those who without their consent were sold 
into slavery. Of this latter class were many prisoners of 
war from England, as well as political prisoners and prison- 
ers for debt. Even criminals brought from the jails of 
England and Scotland were sold in the colonies, where they 
were known as "jail-birds." 

The length of indented service was limited by law and 
varied with age, ranging from five to seven years, and rarely 
extending beyond fourteen years. When these redemption- 
ers had gained their freedom they were given at once all the 
privileges of any other class of citizens. In some colonies 
their masters had to provide them with clothing and certain 
necessary supplies on the completion of their term of service. 



THE colo:n^ies 151 

Many of the indented class were refined and educated people. 
One of the future signers of the Declaration of Independence 
had served time as a redemptioner. However, the vast 
majority of these servants were illiterate. On gaining their 
freedom, their poverty and their lack of education forced 
them to continue, as a matter of fact, in a state of servitude 
Thus, as we have learned in the history of Virginia and 
North Carolina, these poor white slaves were the parent 
stock of the "poor whites" in the south. 

184. The Trade in Indented Servants. — Certain sea-cap- 
taiiis made a regular business of trade in indented servants. 
When such a captain would arrive in a colonial port, he 
would at once post a notice in the town stating that he had 
tailors, carpenters, shoemakers, farmers, or domestic serv- 
ants for sale; whereupon all those desiring such labor would 
go on board ship, make their purchase, and retire. The 
traffic in this kind of slavery encouraged kidnapping, and 
the greatest abuses against the laws of society were com- 
mitted by wicked sea-captains. 

As the colonies grew in population, the traffic in 
indented servants largely decreased on account of a grow- 
ing disposition on the part of the servants to run away 
from their purchasers. However, on the breaking out 
of the Revolution, there were several thousand of these 
indented servants in the colonies. Many of them enlisted in 
the patriot army. On the strong recommendation of Wash- 
ington, all such were given their freedom, payment for their 
unredeemed time to be made to their masters by the general 
government. After the Revolution, the system rapidly 
declined, only one state, Connecticut, retaining it for any 
length of time. 

POLITICAL LIFE 

185. The Government of the Colonies. — As to government, 
the colonies at the time of the Revolution were divided into 
three classes. 



152 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

(1) Charter colonies, or those holding charters which per- 
mitted them to elect their own governors. Connecticut and 
Khode Island were charter colonies in this sense. 

(2) Proprietary colonies. Such were to be ruled by a 
proprietor, or proprietors, to whom the king had granted 
the land, or by governors, appointed by them. Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware, and Maryland were proprietary colonies. 

(3) Royal colonies, or those ruled by governors appointed 
by the king, and held subject to him. New Hampshire, 
Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North and 
South Carolina, and Georgia were royal colonies. 

In all these forms of government, subjection to the king 
was the chief feature. 

Each colony had a legislature of its own similar to the 
legislatures of the states at the present time, — consisting, 
as a rule, of an upper and a lower house. Members 
of the lower house were elected by the votes of the peo- 
ple, the right to vote being limited to landowners, tax- 
payers, or those receiving a yearly income. In nearly all 
of the colonies each voter must be a member of some Chris- 
tian church. Representatives in the upper house were 
appointed by the governor. These legislatures made l;iws 
very much as laws are made by the state legislatures of 
to-day. All laws passed must be in harmony with the laws of 
England and no law could be passed over the governor's 
veto. In some of the colonies the king claimed the right to 
veto a law at any time within three years after its passage, 
and this claim he frequently made good. 

186. Colonial Governors and Lords of Trade. — Each colony 
had a colonial governor, who, in the royal colonies, was 
appointed by the king; in the proprietary, by the proprie- 
tors. In the charter colonies, the governors were elected by 
the people. The crown of England, however, growing 
weary of personally controlling affairs in the colonies, 
appointed a commission in 1696, to be known as the Lords 
of Trade and Plantations. This body from that date to the 



THE COLONIES 153 

time of the Revolution had direct supervision of colonial 
affairs. It dealt directly with the crown on the one hand 
and with the colonial governors and legislatures on the other, 
the king usually accepting as final its recommendations. 

187. Parliament and the Colonies. — At first the English 
parliament was practically barred from legislating in the 
affairs of the colonies. It had usually been the policy of 
the reigning monarchs of England that in colonial affairs 
the will of the king was supreme. All land belonged to 
the king and not to the English government. He could 
grant land and cancel such grants when he pleased. He 
could make and revoke charters at his will. All this was 
somewhat changed during the period of the Commonwealth, 
when the parliament known as the Long Parliament passed 
the first Navigation Act (1651). Thereafter parliament con- 
tinued to legislate on colonial matters. As the years went 
by, the right of parliament so to legislate was recognized by 
the English rulers. Particularly did parliament continue to, 
legislate in the regulation of colonial trade. 

By an act of parliament, the English postal service was 
extended to iVmerica and the rate of postage established. 
An act regulating the currency was also passed. However, 
neither king nor parliament made any attempt to tax 
the colonies. Such a proposal was made in 1696, but it 
at once met with opposition both in England and America. 
A pamphlet was issued in America, protesting against the 
right of parliament to tax the colonies when the colonies had 
no representation in parliament. This question was not 
raised again for nearly seventy years. 

188. The Postoffice. — The postoffice, established in the 
reign of William and Mary, hardly became a system in 
America prior to the year 1738. Benjamin Franklin was 
made deputy postmaster-general for the northern district of 
the colonies in 1753. He at once reformed the whole sys- 
tem, and the postofliice became a paying institution under 
his management. He formed a regular system of officers 



154 



HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 



and carriers, requiring mails to arrive and depart on 
schedule time. He originated the plan of advertising 
*' uncalled for letters." Between the important cities he 
increased the number of mails to three times per week in 
the summer and once in the winter. Letters were carried 
by post-riders on horseback. These post-riders were very 

important personages in 
those days. They carried 
the news from post-town to 
post-town, and were re- 
quired to watch for runaway 
slaves or servants. 

Beginning with New York 
as a center, Franklin estab- 
lished three important mail 
routes: one from New York 
to Boston, another from 
New York to Quebec by 
way of Montreal, and a third 
from New York to Phila- 
delphia. Eegular mail boats 
were run between New York 
and Falmouth, England. 
When Franklin was removed from office at the breaking 
out of the Revolution a system of mail routes had been 
established from New Hampshire to Charleston, South Caro- 
lina. None of these, however, penetrated far into the 
interior of the continent. 

189. Political Parties in the Colonies. — Since the seven- 
teenth century two great political parties had existed in 
England, known as the Whig party and the Tory party. 
The Tories were in favor of increasing the power of the 
king; the Whigs were opposed to such a policy — insisting 
that parliament should have more to do in the affairs of 
government. These two political parties naturally appeared 
in the colonies, advocating the principles for which the 




POST-RIDEB 



THE COLONIES 155 

leaders stood in England. After the year 1688 "Tory" in 
the colonies gave way to "Loyalist" — the name Tory having 
become a term of reproach on account of the conspiracies set 
on foot in the old world to replace the house of the Stuarts 
on the throne of England. 

At the time of the Revolution the Whig party in the col- 
onies furthered the movement toward revolution by opposing 
the king, by advocating popular freedom, and by resisting 
the laws of parliament. They now revived the hated name 
of "Tory" and applied it as a term of reproach to the Loyal- 
ist party, which advocated loyalty to King George and the 
laws of jiarliament. 

Many Tories enlisted in the English army during the 
Revolution and fought with great bitterness against their 
country. They became a hated class in America. Long 
before the Revolution had ended, acts of banishment were 
passed against them by nearly all the colonial legislatures. 
So unpopular had the Tories become at the close of the war 
that the vast majority of them left the country when the 
English troops withdrew. 

Before the Revolution began the term "Colonist" had 
given way to "American"; and "English," to "British." 
The latter name was first used by the colonists as a term of 
reproach, and was aimed directly at King George III. and his 
favorite, Lord Bute, who pompously paraded the fact before 
the world that they were "true Britons." 

190. The Colonists and Their Leaders. — At no time in the 
history of America has leadership counted for so much as 
during the colonial and revolutionary period. 

The name of Washington, representative of the planter 
class — lovingly referred to as the "Father of his Country" — 
certainly leads all others; while the name of Franklin, — 
philosopher, diplomat, and statesman — stands next. 

The college bred men were respected in every community 
where they chanced to reside. Alexander Hamilton of 
Columbia College — future aid to Washington throughout th^ 



156 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Revolution, and future financier of the republic — and John 
Jay, also of Columbia, are but representative of this class. 

The clergy of New England, indeed, the majority of the 
clergy in all other sections, were patriotic men, — devoted 
to spreading the "gospel of liberty" throughout the colonies. 
The influence of the pulpit then was greater than at the 
present time. The clergy did more than preach, — "they 
led and inspired the people; they kept patriotism aflame; 
they moulded national character." John Witherspoon, — 
eloquent divine, president of Princeton College, signer of 
the Declaration, — was but a type of the clergy. 

The merchant class was ably represented by John Hancock 
of Boston, who, with that Puritan patriot, Samuel Adams, 
did more than all others to hasten the lievolution. 

Dr. Joseph Warren, who yielded up his life at Bunker Hill, 
was a noted physician; Koger Sherman of Connecticut was of 
the tradespeople, having been a shoemaker in early life. The 
farmers were represented by the brave Israel Putnam, who, 
when he heard the news of the battle of Lexington, left his 
ox team standing at the plow and put off in hot haste on the 
road to Boston to join the patriot army. 

John Adams and James Otis in Massachusetts, supreme 
in oratory; John Dickinson in Pennsylvania, future author 
of the "Farmer Letters"; Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the 
future author of the Declaration, — eloquent over all others 
in the use of bis pen, — were eminent in the legal profession. 
Patrick Henry of Mrginia, the greatest orator of the Pevo- 
lution, was also a lawyer. We can almost see him now as 
he stands in the old St. John's Church on the hill in Rich- 
mond saying, with whitened face and uplifted hand, "I know 
not what course others may take, but as for me, give me 
liberty or give me death." 

This, then, was the leadership which protested against the 
tyranny of King George, and later confronted him with the 
Declaration of Independence and made for all time the Amer- 
ican Revolution the synonym of American liberty. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



191. Colonial Policy of England.— The attitude of England 
toward her colonies has always been a consistent one, though 
at times not the most humane. England has always insisted 
that her colonies must in some manner contribute to the 
glory and advancement of the parent country. She has 
seldom resorted to direct taxation, however. A more effect- 
ive method of raising revenue has prevailed — that of restrict- 
ive trade measures, by means of which commerce has been 
directed toward England. These measures have not always 
been mandatory; but if not, trade regulations have been 
usually so drawn as to favor the English home merchant as 
against the colonial merchant. 

192. Conditions in England. — The years immediately suc- 
ceeding the "Seven Years' War" were trying ones in England. 
It is true that an empire had just been gained, bat it was at 
the sacrifice of much blood and treasure. It was urged in 
England that the English soldier and the English treasury had 
relieved the colonies from the necessity of constant watchful- 
ness over their ancient enemy, the Indian; that the issue of 
the war had been to the advantage of the colonies as well as of 
England; and that, therefore, the colonists, as Englishmen, 
should be required to meet their share of the expenses of the 
war. The colonists, on their side, argued that if taxes were 
to be laid, the colonial legislature must vote them. The 
colonists could not act in the English parliament, and so 
the laying of taxes by that body would be "taxation without 

157 



158 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

representation," to which they declared they would not 
submit. 

The attitude of the colonies was misunderstood in Eng- 
land. Unfortunately, this misunderstanding was aggravated 
by misleading reports made by the royal governors as to the 
character of the colonists. The governors were in constant 
clash with the legislative bodies in the colonies over matters 
of public policy. The colonists always sided with their own 
legislators, so that the reports of the governors to the king 
and his ministers represented the colonists as turbulent and 
disloyal. 

193. Conditions in the Colonies : Growth of Democracy. — The 
colonists did not desire a separation from the mother country. 
They were proud of England; proud to be called English- 
men. And especially was this true after England's great vic- 
tory over the French. But this feeling was gradually changed 
to one of distrust and aversion by the shortsighted policy of 
George III. and the statesmen who controlled English 
politics at that time. The expense of the four intercolonial 
wars had been borne to a large extent by the colonies, 
and they had furnished their full quota of men to uphold 
the supremacy of England in the New World. They 
were burdened with debt incurred in the prosecution of 
the French and Indian "War; they had suffered the destruc- 
tion of much property, and many precious lives had been 
sacrificed. And even under these conditions they were 
willing to contribute to the support of the home government, 
if they, through their legislatures, could say how the money 
was to be raised. As one after another of their efforts to 
secure this privilege was spurned, the sentiment for inde- 
pendence was developed ; not as a thing in itself to be desired, 
but as an escape from what they considered the tyranny of a 
despotic king. 

The growth of the spirit of liberty and equality In America 
was more rapid than its growth in England because the col- 
onists were farther removed from the influences of royalty 



THE STRUGOLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 159 

and aristocracy. In the colonies, frequent milestones marked 
its progress. The demand for a representative assembly in 
Virginia in 1619; the freedom of action accorded the settler 
in the very beginning of all the New England colonies; the 
written constitution of the four Connecticut Eiver settle- 
ments ; Bacon's protest against the tyranny of Berkeley in 
Virginia ; the arrest and expulsion of Andros in Massachu- 
setts ; — all these were evidences of the growth of democracy 
in the New World. Had this been respected and under- 
stood by the home government, instead of its being 
antagonized, the history of the Kevolution need not have 
been written. 

194. The Principle of Taxation as Used by England. — Eng- 
lish statesmen in control during the period just prior to the 
Revolution contended that nothing was being asked of the 
colonists which was not already borne by Englishmen at home. 
This was true. Many of the larger cities in England were 
not represented in parliament, though they paid taxes 
regularly. The districts from which members of parliament 
were elected had been formed years before. In some of 
these nearly all the people had moved away, but members 
still continued to be elected. At Old Sarum there were no 
residents; in several other districts there were but three or 
four voters, while in certain sections of the country new 
communities had grown up, such as Birmingham and Leeds, 
with numerous populations, and large property interests, and 
yet, without representation in parliament. This was ** taxa- 
tion without representation," just what the colonists were 
protesting against. It was not honestly contended that 
this was right. It was a condition that had obtained grad- 
ually and was left undisturbed because it suited the ends of 
the corrupt politicians of that day, and of an equally corrupt 
king. 

195. Navigation Acts: Intercolonial Wars. — These are two 
of the remote causes of the Revolution. It has been shown 
how the colonists always loyally supported their sovereign 



IGO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and boro their share of the burden in the intercolonial 
wars. The remembrance of his sacrifices rankled in the 
heart of the colonist when the government for which he 
had sacrificed so mucli gave so little heed to his petitions for 
Justice. 

The first Navigation Act was passed in 1651. This was 
reenacted in 1660, and strengthened still further by the 
acts of 1663 and 1672. In addition to these four principal 
acts, twenty-five additional acts were passed by parliament 
during the period from 1672 to 1774. . Many of tliese laws 
had direct bearing on the commerce of the colonies. It was 
required that both exports and imports should be carried in 
English vessels, or in ships built in the colonies, the same 
to be manned by crews and officers, a majority of whom, in 
each instance, were to be English. These acts were origin- 
ally aimed at the Dutch, who had a monopoly of the Ameri- 
can carrying trade and, indeed, of the trade of the world. 
While the acts encouraged activity in ship-building in the 
colonies to the extent that ship-building in New England had 
become an important industry, still, the main provisions of 
the acts tended to make the colonies dependent upon Eng- 
land. As the years passed the acts in this respect became 
more and more objectionable to the colonies. However, the 
navigation acts had not of late been enforced with much 
rigor. The English government, as we have seen, now 
resolved to enforce these laws rigidly as one method of 
increasing the revenues. Taken in connection with other 
burdens, this enforcement became a source of great irrita- 
tion to those engaged in shipping or mercantile pursuits in 
the colonies. 

196. Writs of Assistance. — Smuggling wtis the natural result 
of the navigation acts and was winked at by the colonial 
authorities, who were opposed to the enforcement of the 
acts. In order to find smuggled goods the king's officers 
were given writs of assistance. With one of these in hand 
an officer could search the house or premises of any citizen at 



TJIE STKUGGLE FOR INDEPENDEKCE 161 

any time during the day. This aroused the most violent 
opposition in the colonies. The search could be made on the 
unsupported charge of the officer, with no penalty attached 
if goods were not found. 

197. Stamp Act— 1765: Protests.— The first bold attempt 
to tax all the colonies was by the ^Dassage of a Stamp 
Act in 17G5. Though the Sugar and Molasses Act had 
been renewed two years prior to this act, still it affected 
only New England, while the Stamp Act aroused opposi- 
tion in all the colonies. It required all legal and public 
documents, marriage certificates, wills, etc., to be written on 
stamped paper, for which an increased price was asked, the 
surplus going to the government. The passage of the act 
was preceded by a year's notice from the prime minister, 
Lord Grenville, that such action was contemplated. At a 
town meeting in Boston, held in May, 17G4, to protest 
against the proposed tax, resolutions eloquently presented by 
Samuel Adams were passed which, for the first time, formally 
denied the right of the English government to tax the col- 
onies without their consent. The Massachusetts legislature 
later indorsed these resolutions and issued a circular letter 
to the other colonies asking that they petition against the 
passage of the act. But, disregarding all these petitions 
parliament passed it. 

198. The Stamp Act Congress — 1765. — The interval between 
its passage and the day the Stamp Act was to go into effect was 
full of excitement in the colonies. Clubs taking the name 
of "Sons of Liberty" were immediately organized all over the 
colonies. Massachusetts proposed a congress of delegates 
from all the colonies to discuss measures to defeat its enforce- 
ment. Nine colonies responded and a declaration of rights 
was drawn up by this "Stamp Act Congress" and sent to 
the king. It was asserted therein that Americans were Brit- 
ish citizens, and it was the right of all such to be represented 
in any body that levied taxes upon them. This congress also 
advised the formation of nonimportation clubs among the 



162 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

colonial merchants, and clubs among the i^eople to encourage 
the use of home products in the colonies. 

199. Organized Resistance: Repeal of the Act: Declara- 
tory Act. — As the stamped paper began to arrive for dis- 
tribution, the excitement became intense. Those who 
had accepted appointment as distributers were forced to 
resign, some of them being roughly handled on refusal. 
The paper was seized and in many cases burned. lu 
Boston the Sons of Liberty tore down the frame building 
that was being erected for the distributer, and, piling 
it before his house, placed the stamj^ed paper thereon 
and made a bonfire of the whole. In New York they 
broke into the coach house of the governor, placed 
images of the Devil and the governor on the coach, then 
paraded the streets, finally burning coach and images, while 
the governor, and General Gage and his militia, looked on, 
not daring to resist. On the 1st of Xovember, the day the 
act was to go into effect, funeral processions were formed, 
bells were muffied and tolled, and flags were placed at half 
mast. At Portsmouth, N. H. , a coffin was borne in pro 
cession, inscribed, "Liberty, aged CXLV years"; when the 
grave was reached signs of life appeared, the changed inscrip- 
tion reading: "Liberty revived," when it was borne back 
amid great rejoicings. Thus the common people condemned 
the Stamp Act. And yet, few of the colonial leaders thought 
of resisting its enforcement after it was once passed, Frank- 
lin himself advising submission and Richard Henry Lee 
accepting appointment as one of the distributers. But the 
colonists bought none of the stamped paper ; and, further, 
the policy of nonimportation among the colonial merchants 
was so effective that parliament, yielding to the remonstrances 
presented by London merchants whose business had greatly 
suffered thereby, repealed the obnoxious act in 17GG. A 
Declaratory Act was appended, however, to the repeal, 
announcing that the government still held to its right to tax 
the colonies whenever and in whatever way it thought best. 



THE STRUGGLE POU INDEPENDENCE 163 

200. Sparks of Liberty. — Perhaps no single event in the his- 
tory of the world has occasioned more flights of sublime elo- 
quence than the American Revolution. At the session of the 
Virginia House of Burgesses following the announcement of 
the Stamp Act, Patrick Henry, then a young, inexperienced 
lawyer, rising in his place, launched forth on a speech 
which horrified the Tories by its fierce invective against the 
king, and electrified the friends of America at its bold 
declaration of the rights of freemen. With eyes flashing and 
hand upli:^ted he thundered forth the philippic that has since 
been the tocsin of every American orator, proclaiming 
liberty as against despotic rule — "Caesar had his Brutus, 
Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third — 
may profit by their example." 

James Otis was a young lawyer holding appointment under 
the king in Boston as state prosecutor. At the time of the 
excitement over the writs of assistance (1761) he resigned his 
office to argue against their constitutionality. In an impas- 
sioned speech before the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, he 
gave utterance to that terse statement, "Taxation without 
representation is tyranny," and declared that such iniquities 
as the writs in question had "cost one king of England his 
head and another his throne." John Adams, in referring to 
the stirring events of the day on which Otis had made this 
great speech in defence of the liberties of the people, said : 
"On that day was American independence born." 

201. The Townshend Acts — 1767.— While protesting against 
the Stamp x\ct, the colonial leaders had emphasized the dis- 
tinction between external and internal taxes, and asserted that 
they were not opposed to the laying of the former. The 
excitement over the Stamp Act had hardly subsided when 
Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer, therefore 
proposed the collection of duties on various articles, such as 
glass, paper, painter's colors, and tea. To this the colonists 
could not consistently object, though they found matter 
enough for objection in the fact that the act provided that the 



104 HISTORY OP THE UXITED STATES 

moneys thus collected should be applied in paying the salaries 
of the officers of the king. But in connection with this 
measure were several others, all together known as the 
"Townshend Acts," and to these the colonists entered vigor- 
ous protest. Prior to the passage of these acts, the New 
York legislative body had refused to provide quarters for 
the troops sent over by the king. By one of these acts the 
New York legislature was forbidden to consider the passage 
of any other law until quarters were provided for the king's 
troops. Another act provided for the appointment of a 
board of commissioners to control the collection of all cus- 
toms and duties, and provision was made for the trial of all 
revenue cases by admiralty courts without juries. These 
acts were promulgated the year following the repeal of the 
Stamp Act, and immediately fanned into fierce flame the 
smoldering embers left by that excitement. In Boston, 
Samuel Adams wrote a series of addresses on the acts, which 
were published by the Massachusetts legislature and scattered 
broadcast throughout the colonies, together with a circular 
letter urging concert of action as before. The merchants 
revived their nonimportation societies and tlie people again 
denied themselves the use of English goods and encouraged 
the exclusive use of articles of home manufacture. 

202. "Letters of a Pennsylvania Farmer" — 1768. — These 
letters were prompted by the passage of the Townshend Acts 
and were written by John Dickinson, a young Philadelphia 
lawyer, who assumed the guise and language of a farmer. lie 
was a man of fine education, a thorough patriot, and with a 
wonderful insight into the needs of the colonies. His letters 
were moderate in tone, yet with convincing logic they drove 
straight to the point. Breathing a deep spirit of patriotism, 
they became a great factor in the preparation of the people 
for the coming conflict. 

203. The Sloop Liberty— 1768 : The Boston Massacre- 
March 5, 1770: The Revenue Cutter Gaspee— 1772.— Three 
of the events of these years are of importance as showing 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 165 

the spirit of the times. The seizure of the sloop Liberty 
occurred in the harbor of Boston in 1768. Although the 
colonists did not deny the right of the English government 
to collect port duties, they felt the hardships thus imposed 
and evaded the payment of the duties whenever possible. 
Soon after the new board of commissioners had arrived from 
England the sloop Liberty was seized, without an official 
warrant, by a boat's crew from the British frigate Romney, 
for alleged violation of the revenue laws. The board of Eng- 
lish commissioners sustained the action of the crew in seizing 
the Liberty, whereupon a large crowd gathered in the 
streets^ of Boston, tlie demonstrations growing so violent that 
the frightened commissioners took refuge on board the 
Romney. The Liberty was owned by John Hancock, the 
wealthy patriot merchant— the first signer of the Declaration 
of Lidependence. 

This incident led indirectly to the Boston massacre, two 
years later. The accounts which the commissioners wrote 
of the matter to the home government were so lurid— charac- 
terizing the people of Boston as law-breakers and urging the 
immediate necessity of a military force in the city— that the 
king dispatched General Thomas Gage, as commander-in-chief 
of the British forces in America, to Boston with two regi- 
ments of troops. The city authorities refused to permit 
these troops to be quartered in Boston, quoting law to the 
effect that the barracks in the harbor must first be filled. 
However, General Gage found shelter for his troops by the 
payment of a high rent and the soldiers were kept in the 
city. Collisions between the soldiers and the rougher elements 
of the town were not infrequent, though there was no serious 
outbreak until the night of March 5, 1770. On that night 
a false alarm of fire caused a large crowd to gather on the 
streets. This crowd, having nothing better to do, began to 
annoy the British sentinels. As is usual at such times, a 
quarrel ensued. One word brought on another. Several 
soldiers were ordered out to aid the sentinels, and in the 



166 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

growing excitement a gun was fired by someone in the crowd. 
This was answered by a volley from the soldiers, resulting in 
the killing of five of the citizens and the wounding of six 
others. Intense excitement prevailed and it was feared the 
soldiers would be seized and summarily dealt with. But wiser 
counsel controlled. The soldiers concerned in the firing were 
given up to the civil authorities, and were tried for murder 
— two of the most distinguished and able patriot lawyers, 
John Adams and Josiah Quincy, Jr., defending them. All 
were acquitted but two, who were given a sentence of man- 
slaughter and branded in the hand. The immediate effect 
of the massacre was the withdrawal of Gage's regiments from 
the city at the peremptory demand of the Bostonians. They 
were henceforth quartered in barracks on an island in the 
harbor. The Boston massacre served to arouse the people 
of all the colonies against the iniquity of quartering troops 
on any people without their consent. 

The burning of the Gaspee was another link in the chain 
that led up to the Revolution. The Gaspee was a revenue 
cutter used to patrol the New England coast in search of 
smugglers. The Gaspee's crew became so high-handed in 
their conduct that it was resolved to punish them. One 
night in Narragansett Bay the cutter ran aground. Eight 
boat-loads of colonists visited her and, setting the crew 
on land, burned the stranded ship to the water's edge. 
This act was made the subject of an investigation by par- 
liament, but nothing could be found out about the perpe- 
trators. 

204. Cheap Tea, and the Boston Tea Party— Dec. 16, 1773.— 
The policy of nonimportation had again had its effect and the 
British ministry, after three years' trial, gave up in despair, 
so far as revenue was concerned. All duties were removed 
except on tea, and on this article the duty was made so low 
that tea could be bought cheaper in America than it could be 
bought in England. The king meant to "try the question 
with America, " as he put it. He selected tea for the trial 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



167 



ill order to help the East India Tea Company, in whose 
warehouses in London the tea had been accumulating because 
the Americans had refused to use it. The Americans, how- 
ever, were fighting for a principle and could not be silenced 
by cheaper tea. By 1773 the tea company had 17,000,000 
pounds of tea in their warehouses and cargoes were sent to 
Charleston, Annapolis, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. 
The colonists were, however, united in sentiment. At Char- 
leston the tea was removed from the ship and stored pur- 
posely in damp cellars, where it soon spoiled. At Annapolis 
it was seized and burned. The Philadelphia and New York 
authorities sent the ships back to England with 
their cargoes. But it remained for Boston, under 
the leadership of that sturdy patriot, Samuel 
Adams, to furnish the most unique method of 
settling the question. 

The first ship arrived in Boston harbor on 
Sunday. A mass meeting was held the next day 
at which it was decided that the ships must not 

be allowed to unload, 
and the day following 
tlie captain promised 
to sail back to Eng- 
land as soon as he 
could receive his 
clearance papers from 
the governor. In the 
meantime other ships 
having arrived, they 



i 



OLD SOUTH CHURCH 



were treated in a 
similar manner. But the governor delayed granting the 
clearance papers, hoping to pass the time limit of twenty 
days, when the shipping law required a cargo to be landed 
.and stored. Thursday, December 16, marked the twentieth 
day, and the governor still delayed, and finally positively 
refused to issue the papers. When this fact had been 



168 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

reported to the citizens in session at the Old South Church, 
Samuel Adams rose and said: "The meeting declares it 
can do nothing more to save the country." A few minutes 
after, a company of forty or fifty reputable citizens, lightly 
disguised as Indians, and followed by an immense crowd, 
proceeded quietly to the wharf and, boarding the vessels, 
cut open the tea cases and threw their contents into the 
harbor, after which the people quietly dispersed. This event 
is known in history as the Boston Tea Party. 

205. The Boston Port Bill and the "Intolerable Acts" — 
March and June, 1774. — When the story of how the different 
cargoes were treated reached the English authorities, they 
determined that the people of Boston should be visited with 
especial punishment and that the other colonies should be 
made to feel England's power. A series of acts was accord- 
ingly prepared which, because of their severity, were known 
in America as the "Intolerable Acts." The first of these 
was the Boston Port Bill. The second was the Regulating 
Act, which annulled the charter of Massachusetts and made 
it a royal province. The third was the Transportation Act, 
providing that any person indicted for murder while in the 
service of the king should not be tried where the act was 
committed, but in England. The Quartering Act removed 
all legal obstacles to the quartering of troops in the colonies. 
The fifth and last was known as the Quebec Act. This act 
granted the French provinces religious toleration, and 
extended the province of Quebec westward to the Mississippi 
Iiiver and southward to the Ohio River. It was designed to 
prevent the province of Quebec from joining the other 
colonies in their demand for freedom. It still left intact the 
king's old "proclamation line" which had so greatly incensed 
the colonies in 1763. Several of the colonies claimed much 
of this new Quebec province as their own and felt outraged 
at the act. These acts were indeed "intolerable" acts. 
They were passed in 1774, and under their influence the 
Revolution ripened. 



THE STRUGGLE POR INDEPENDEXCE 169 

The Boston Port Bill was passed for the especial 
punishment of the city of Boston on account of its partici- 
pation in the Tea Party. The bill went into effect June 1, 
1774. It closed the port of Boston to everything but 
food and fuel until the tea should be paid for, and satis- 
factory evidence given that the people were thoroughly 
repentant. 

206. Effect of the Bill and the Action of the Other Colonies.— 
The immediate effect of the Port Bill at Boston was of course 
distressing. The trade of that city was almost exclusively 
carried on by sea. A large portion of its inhabitants were 
engaged in occupations made necessary by sea traffic, and 
these were at once thrown out of employment. But they 
were not dismayed, for they had the moral and material sup- 
port of all the other colonies, to whom a circular letter had 
been sent asking for aid. The first of June was made a day 
of fasting and mourning in many of the colonies, and money 
and provisions were collected and forwarded to the stricken 
city. For all felt that this was a blow, which, though meant 
for Boston, was borne by that city in the interest of all the 
colonies. 

207. First Continental Congress— Sept. 5 to Oct. 26, 1774.— 
Nothing so unites the hearts of individuals or of nations as a 
common danger. If the king could ruin Boston, the richest 
city in the colonies, he could ruin any other municipality 
unless abject submission was yielded to his demands. The 
colonial leaders began to realize that only in union could there 
be strength. This idea was voiced by the New York Sons 
of Liberty in a suggestion for a convention of delegates from 
the different colonies. Benjamin Franklin had also made 
this suggestion to the Massachusetts legislature, and similar 
proposals were made by the members of the Virginia assem- 
bly after its dissolution by the royalist governor. Accord- 
ingly, on September 5, there met in Philadelphia a congress 
of fifty-five delegates, every colony being represented but 
Georgia, where the royal governor was able to defeat an 



170 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

attempt to choose delegates. In many respects this was a 
remarkable gathering. Washington, Patrick Henry, and 
Kichard Henry Lee were there from Virginia, the Adamses 
from Massachusetts and Jay from New York. All shades of 
religious opinion were represented, so much so that John Jay 
opposed the motion to open with prayer on the ground that 
there were so many sects that agreement could not be had on 
a suitable person. But Samuel Adams, stiff Puritan as he 
was, remarked that "he could hear prayers from any gentle- 
man of piety who was at the same time a patriot," and moved 
to invite an Episcopal clergyman, who was present, to serve 
the convention. The Congress was in session until October 
2G. It issued an address to the people of the colonies, 
another to the Canadians, still another to the people of Great 
Britain, and a fourth to the king. In a declaration of rights, 
of which the great Pitt said that the "histories of Greece 
and Rome give us nothing equal to it," they demanded the 
repeal of eleven of the objectionable acts of parliament, asserted 
the right to tax themselves, the right to assemi^le peaceably 
for purposes of petition, and demanded that they be accorded 
the "rights of Englishmen," as laid down in all their char- 
ters. One of the most practical results of this Congress was 
the formation of the American Association. This was a 
nationalization of the nonimportation idea, giving it more 
strength and force by more effective organization. On the 
Port Bill question a decisive resolution of approval of the 
opposition of Massachusetts thereto was passed. The Con- 
gress also declared that if force should be used by the king to 
further carry out the acts of parliament, then, "in such case 
all America ought to support Massachusetts in her opposi- 
tion." In many respects this was the most important utter- 
ance of the Congress, for it threw down the gauntlet to the 
king and parliament — "persist at your peril." When Con- 
gress adjourned it provided for another congress, to meet on 
the 10th of May, following, to consider the answer which 
the king was expected to make. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDEXCE 



171 



208. Battle of Lexington— April 19, 1775: "The Shot Heard 
Round the World."— During the fall and winter of 1775-76 
stirring events were occurring in Massachusetts. General 
Gage, now also governor of Massachusetts, had been 
reinforced by four regiments of troops who were to awe the 
people of Massachusetts into submission. The people were 
still peaceably inclined, but they could not be coerced. They 
still met in their town meetings and refused to recognize 
the judges appointed by the king when he had revoked their 
charter. Under the pressure of public sentiment many of 
these judges resigned and those who did not resign were 
forbidden to qualify. Governor- General Gage called the 
legislature to meet at Salem, but before the time set had 
arrived he postponed the meeting. However, the legislature 
proceeded to meet without Gage's consent and at once 
appointed a committee of safety, one of whose duties was to 
collect military stores. In February, this committee made 
provision for the or- 
ganization of the 
militia of the state, 
to resist Gage should 
he employ force. 
Thus the winter was 
passed in prepara- 
tion for possible war 
and all of the Amer- 
ican colonies anx- 
iously awaited the 
issue. Finally a per- 
emptory order came from the king for the arrest of Samuel 
Adams and John Hancock, two of the most noted of the 
patriot leaders. They were reported to be at Lexington 
near Concord, where the colonists had gathered many military 
stores. Gage concluded to capture the men and destroy the 
stores at one stroke. But the colonists had not been idle. 
On the night the expedition was to set out for Lexington 



lEDFOBO;*" ^^ 



w 




BOSTON AND VICINITY 



172 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



1 



swift riders carried the warning of the coming expedition. 
The warning was given in sufficient time, Adams and Han- 
cock were safe with friends, while the region in the vicinity 
of Boston was one blaze of signal lights, calling out the 
minute-men for long-expected action. 

As the Redcoats marched into Lexington, they found a 
small body of minute-men assembled on the green. Major 
John Pitcairn was sent to disperse them and in the skirmish 
I that ensued sev- 

I en of the Ameri- 

cans were killed 

and a number 

wounded. The 

British then 

pressed on to 

Concord, but 

found little to 

destroy, as the 

patriots had 

secreted the 

greater portion 

of the supplies. 

Here another 

skirmish oc- 
curred, in which 

a small party of 

British were 
A BRITISH SOLDIER drlveu back to 

their main body. Noticing the rapidity with which the 
colonists were gathering, Colonel Smith concluded it the 
better part of valor to get back to Boston. By the time 
he had left Concord a host of colonial farmers lined the route 
by which the British must reach Boston. There was little 
or no organization among these farmers — they were not 
strong enough to give open battle — but every tree and 
rock became a breastwork from behind which there blazed 




AX AMERICAN SO LDIKR 



THE STRUGGLE POR INDEPENDENCE 173 

forth a withering fire. The day was intensely hot. The 
British had been under arms and on the march since nine 
o'clock of the evening before, and by the time Lexington was 
reached on their retreat they were well-nigh exhausted. The 
Americans continued their harassing tactics until halted 
by the guns of the British fleet at Boston. 

EVENTS OF 1775 

209. Gathering of the Hosts. — Thus General Gage had pre- 
cipitated the Revolution. The Massachusetts assembly met 
immediately and resolved that Gage "ought to be considered 
and guarded against as an unnatural and inveterate foe to 
the country." All New England was instantly alive with 
militia, all moving toward a common rendezvous outside 
Boston, and in a few days Gage was confronted with sixteen 
thousand American soldiers, burning for revenge. General 
Artemas Ward, of Boston, was placed in temporary com- 
mand. 

210. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold at Ticonderoga — May 
10 ; Seth Warner at Crown Point — May 10. — Benedict Arnold 
was early on the scene, and calling the attention of the 
leaders to the importance of securing the forts at Ticonderoga 
and Crown Point, was given a commission to raise a com- 
pany for that purpose. But he had been anticipated by the 
"Green Mountain Boys" under Ethan Allen, who had organ- 
ized for the same purpose. He thereupon joined the 
expedition as a volunteer. They arrived on the lake shore 
opposite the fort on the evening of May 9. Fearing lest 
their presence should be made known, Allen immediately 
crossed and in the early morning seized the sleepy sentinels 
and entered the fort. The surprise was complete. Bursting 
into the commandant's bedchamber, he astonished that half- 

• awakened officer with a demand for the surrender of the fort. 
"By whose authority?" "By the authority of the Great 
Jehovah and the Continental Congress," replied Allen. 



174 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

On the very day this scene was happening at Ticonderoga, 
Seth Warner, with another body of troops, captured Crown 
Point. Over two hundred cannon, an immense supply of 
ammunition, and a large quantity of military stores of every 
description, thus fell into the hands of the Americans. 

211. Second Continental Congress — May 10. — On the very 
day these stirring events were being enacted in the north, the 
day set for the convening of the Congress to hear the reply 
of the king, had arrived. Congress was confronted at once 
by the most serious questions. The king's only reply had 
been the sending of a fleet and of an army to punish Massa- 
chusetts for her rebellious conduct. Some of the members 
felt that nothing but independence would settle affairs, 
though all agreed that the time was premature for such a 
declaration. However, Congress stood by the resolution to 
meet force with force. It at once accepted the patriot army 
gathered at Boston and proceeded to provide for its proper 
officering and support. The session of the Second Con- 
tinental Congress was practically continuous during the 
Eevolution, meeting first at Philadelphia, then at such points 
as were considered safe from the incursions of the British. 
Without expressly delegated authority, it was forced by the 
pressure of rapidly transpiring events to act as if it were a 
legally constituted body, the different colonies in almost 
every case honoring its acts as such. 

212. Washington Appointed Commander-in-Chief —June 17. 
— One of the gravest questions before Congress was the selec- 
tion of a suitable commander-in-chief for the army. The 
qualities necessary were (1) a strong ^personality, (2) a suc- 
cessful military experience, (3) a keen insight into character, 
and (4) a burning patriotism capable of inspiring the army 
with a spirit that would endure any sacrifice. Though there 
were other candidates, it very early developed that George 
Washington, commander of the Virginia state militia, and a 
delegate to the Congress, would be the choice, and his 
appointment was unanimously agreed upon. 




WASHINGTON'S FAREWELH. TO HIS SIOTHER 



THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDENCE 



175 



213. Bunker Hill — June 17. — While the Congress was delib- 
erating over the grave questions consequent to a state of war, 
events were progressing toward open conflict at Boston. 
General William Howe had arrived from England with heavy 
reinforcements and it was at once resolved to take aggressive 
measures to put down the rebellion. Gage first issued an 
amnesty proclamation to all who would renew their allegiance 
to the king, making an exception of John Hancock and 
Samuel Adams, "the arch conspirators." This producing 
no effect, the British were about to begin active measures to 
dislodge the patriots, when the latter themselves precipitated 
the issue. Upon the information that Gage had directed 
General Howe to seize and fortify Dorchester Heights, the 
Committee of Safety determined on the seizure of Bunker 
Hill in order to divert Howe. Accordingly, on Sunday 
night, June IG, Col- 
onel William Pres- 
cott was directed to 
seize that point. 
With twelve hundred 
picked men Prescott 
at first took posses- 
sion of Bunker Hill, 
but believing that 
Breed's Hill, an ad- 
joining elevation, 
would be better for 
the purpose, he threw 
up fortifications there instead. Great was the astonish- 
ment of the British at what they were pleased to call 
the "temerity" of the rebels. A few shells were thrown 
from the fleet, but it was soon discovered that the Amer- 
icans could only be dislodged by a land attack or a 
siege. General Howe accordingly landed three thou- 
sand troops and stormed the intrench ments. Twice did 
the brave Redcoats meet the murderous fire; twice 






;'>l|-^JvJ55g«}ws 




CHARLESTOWN I'ENINSrLA, SHOWING BUNKER HILL 



176 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

they retired in utter confusion. Then fresh troops were 
landed and the third time they were led to what seemed 
inevitable slaughter. But, unfortunately, the Americans 
had not been supplied with sufficient ammunition. One 
volley, and then they clubbed their muskets to meet the 
bayonet charge of the British. Numbers, however, soon 
told against the Americans, who were forced to retire, though 
in splendid order and fine spirits. The Americans lost 
about one-fourth of their number, or four hundred and 
forty-nine, among them the brave General Joseph Warren, 
one of the leading patriots of Boston. The British 
lost one thousand and fifty-four men. Although a vic- 
tory for the British, it had all the effects of a crushing 
defeat. It made Sir William Howe an extremely cautious 
general thereafter, and gave to the British soldier a whole- 
some fear of and respect for the American yeomanry. 
Among the colonies the battle inspired in the patriot heart 
confidence to meet the British foe. King George, after 
receiving the report of the battle of Bunker Hill, recalled 
Gage and appointed Howe commander-in-chief of the British 
forces in America. 

214. Montgomery and Arnold at Quebec. — No further action 
occurred about Boston during that season. An expedition to 
Canada was undertaken by the Americans, however, for they 
believed that a successful blow dealt against Montreal and 
Quebec would encourage the Canadians to join the colonies in 
their revolt. The expedition was to consist of two sections. 
One section, under General Richard Montgomery, was to 
start from Fort Ticonderoga, take Montreal, and then join 
Arnold in an attack on Quebec. 

Arnold, after undergoing the most terrible privations and 
hardships, arrived before Quebec in November, but with his 
force so reduced by the hardships of the trip that he could 
muster but seven hundred men for the attack. He was 
consequently compelled to wait for Montgomery. Upon the 
latter's arrival an attack was planned from opposite sides of 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 177 

the city to take place the night of December 31. On that 
night, amid blinding snow and bitter " cold the attack was 
made with such spirit that the troops fought their way well 
into the city. At this moment of possible victory, Mont- 
gomery was killed and his men became so disheartened that 
they were forced back by the now desperate British. Arnold's 
attack fared little better, he himself being wounded. His men 
fought on, however, until overpowered by numbers. This 
disaster cooled the ardor of the colonists in some degree 
and taught them to expect but little assistance from the 
Canadians. 

EVENTS OF 1776 

215. Howe Evacuates Boston— March 17. — July 3, 1775, 
on the village green at Cambridge, Washington took com- 
mand of the American army. He was a strict disciplinarian 
and immediately instituted army regulations and daily 
drills. His desire was to drive Howe out of Boston as 
soon as possible. But he dared not make the attempt 
until the patriot army was properly equipped for the attack, 
and this proved no easy task. Everything pertaining to the 
equipping of an army had to be provided. The summer 
and early winter had passed before Washington felt that his 
army was in any way a match for the opposing force. 
Finally, the arrival from Ticonderoga and Crown Point of 
heavy siege guns and other supplies brought through the 
almost impenetrable wilderness on sledges drawn over the snow 
by oxen, made it possible to accomplish the fortification of 
Dorchester Heights, the key to Boston. 

On the morning of the 5th of March, 1776, the British in 
Boston were treated to the unwelcome sight of the American 
flag on Dorchester Heights, commanding the city on the 
south. Howe thereupon ordered Lord Percy with three 
thousand troops to take the American position. A storm 
prevented the attack during the day, and the next morn- 
ing it was decided that the position was too strong to 



178 



HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



be carried. Thus had Bunker Hill taught the British to 
respect American valor. Learning of Howe's intention to 
evacuate Boston and desiring to avoid a bombardment by 
the British fleet, which would have inflicted unnecessary 
damage to private property in Boston, Washington did not 
attack Howe, allowing him to take his time in evacuating 




BOSTON HARBOK 



the city. It was the 17th of March before the British fleet 
set sail for Halifax. 

216. The British in the South : Battle of Fort Moultrie— 
June 28. — In the early spring Howe sent Sir Henry Clinton 
south with a fleet for the purpose of subduing the southern 
colonies. Clinton found conditions in North Carolina so 
favorable to the American cause that he decided to attack 
Charleston on the South Carolina coast. At Charleston 
Colonel Moultrie had built on Sullivan's Island a fort 
which commanded Charleston harbor. The fort was a 
primitive affair, built out of palmetto logs and sand. In 
the battle which ensued on the 28th of June, Moultrie's 



THE STRUGGLE EOR IXDEPEXDENCE 17D 

fort withstood, with but little damage, a terrific bombard- 
ment from the ten ships of the British. On the other 
hand, the aim of the Americans was so well directed that 
nine of the enemy's ships were disabled. 

217. King George Hires Hessians. — When the abundance of 
England's resources at that time is considered, it is little 
wonder that the nations of the world marveled at the temerity 
of the American colonies in offering resistance to the parent 
country. England had a large, well-trained army of her 
own; she had early conciliated the Indians and in the hands 
of experienced frontiersmen they proved a source of great 
strength to the English ; but King George still further added 
to the strength of his armies by the hiring of foreign troops 
— a practice then quite prevalent among the nations on the 
continent. Certain small states of Europe made war a busi- 
ness, training troops for service, and hiring them to such 
nations as had more money than men. During the Revolu- 
tion, England sent over about thirty thousand of these 
mercenaries, for which she paid the enormous sum of nine 
million dollars. They were called Hessians because the 
larger number of them were hired from the ruler of Hesse- 
Cassel. They did the king good service in the field, but this 
service was greatly counterbalanced by the increased bitter- 
ness engendered in the minds of the colonists. This hiring 
of troops by King George also won for the colonists the 
sympathy of many nations, and strengthened the idea of 
independence in those colonies which were the most conserv- 
ative. It roused the just indignation of Frederick the Great 
in Germany and incensed thousands of liberty-loving Eng- 
lishmen at home. 

218. Independence Declared — July 4. — It is well to remem- 
ber that, while many of the leaders had advocated separation 
and independence before the Declaration was given to the 
world, still the great mass of the colonists at first neither 
asked for it nor thought it a necessary outcome to the strug- 
gle in which they were now engaged. An actual state of 



180 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



war had existed over a year before the idea of independence 
was strong enough to carry in a majority of the colonies. 
North Carolina was the first to give public utterance to the 
idea, her assembly passing a resolution, April 22, instruct- 
ing her delegates in Congress to "concur with those in other 
colonies in declaring independence." Virginia followed with 
a similar request, and on June 7 one of her able delegates, 
Richard Henry Lee, offered the following resolution for the 
consideration of Congress: 

"Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, free and independent states; that they are 




INDEPENDENCE HALL 



absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that 
all political connection between them and the state of Great 
Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." 

The resolution was postponed until after the delegates 
could get instructions from their constituencies. It was 
brought up for consideration again on July 1, and on the 
following day, after full debate, was passed by Congress. 
A committee was immediately appointed to draft the Beclar- 



thp: struggle fok ixdepexdence 181 

ation. This committee consisted of Thomas Jefferson, John 
Adams, Roger Sherman, Benjamin Franklin, and Robert R. 
Livingston. Jefferson, as chairman of the committee, wrote 
the Declaration, and it was adopted with little change on the 
evening of July 4, 1776, when it was announced to the 
populace by the ringing of the old Liberty Bell which hung 
in the tower of Independence Hall. The Declaration was 
immediately published to the world and was received in all 
the colonies with public demonstrations of approval. There 
were many, however, who felt the truth of Franklin's half 
jocular remark, made while the members were signing the 
engrossed copy. The president, John Hancock, feeling the 
gravity of the occasion, had urged all to stand by their 
action, adding, *'We must all hang together." "Yes," 
replied Franklin, "or we shall assuredly all hang sep- 
arately." 

While Jefferson wrote the Declaration, and John Adams 
and John Witherspoon, by their eloquence, aided in its 
adoption still it was not the work of any one man nor com- 
pany of men — in a broader sense it was the voice of the whole 
American people speaking through their representatives in 
Congress. It represented the public conscience of America 
at the time. While astonishing, it won the respect and 
admiration of nearly every country in Europe. Its passage 
on the evening of July 4, 1776, marks the birth of the 
republic. As America's first great state paper it cannot be 
omitted from these pages. Its full text follows : 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES 
OF AMERICA 

When, in the course of human events it becomes necessary for 
one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected 
them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, 



182 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 

the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man- 
kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them 
to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created 
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalien- 
able rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted 
among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the 
governed ; that whenever any form of government becomes destruc- 
tive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish 
it, and to institute new government laying its foundation on such 
principles and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
indeed, will dictate that governments long established, should not 
be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all 
experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, 
while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of 
abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide 
new guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient 
sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which 
constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The 
history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated 
injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establish- 
ment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let 
facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly 
neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
representation in the legislature, a right inestimable to them and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public 
records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with 
his measures. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDENCE 183 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; 
the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers 
of invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for 
that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and 
raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms 
of oflScers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies with- 
out the consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of and 
superior to the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction for- 
eign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving 
his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these 
States : 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury : 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses : 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and 
enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example 
and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these 
colonies : 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable 
laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments: 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- 
tection and waging war against us. 



184 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mer- 
cenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, 
already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely 
paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the 
head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merci- 
less Indian savages, w^hose known rule of warfare, is an undistin- 
guished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress 
in the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been ans- 
wered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus 
marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the 
ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 
We have warned them 'from time to time of attempts by their 
legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We 
have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and 
settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and mag- 
nanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common 
kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably 
interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have 
been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, 
therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our separa- 
tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest of ^mankind, enemies in 
war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of Amer- 
ica, in general Congress, assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge 
of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, 
and by authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly 
publish and declare. That these United Colonies are, and of right 
ought to be free and independent States ; that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political con- 
nection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought 
to be totally dissolved ; and that as free and independent States, 
they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alli- 
ances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which 
independent States may of right do. And for the support of this 





BENJAMIN FRANliHN 
ROBERT MORRIS 



THOMAS JEFl^ERSON 
JOHN ADAMS 



T^TTAT-r^TTT'^rTOTC AT?^V^ T^THATIERS 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



185 



declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Prov- 
idence, w^e mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, 
and our sacred honor. John Hancock. 



New Hampshire. 
Josiah Bartlett, 
Wm. Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay. 
Saml. Adams, 
John Adams, 
Robt. Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island. 
Step. Hopkins, 
William Ellery. 

Connecticut. 
Roger Sherman, 
Sam'el Huntington, 
Wm. Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 

New York. 
Wm. Floyd, 
Phil. Livingston, 
Frans. Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 



New Jersey. 
Richd. Stockton, 
Jno. Witherspoon, 
Fras. Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abra. Clark. 

Pennsylvania. 
Robt. Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benja. Franklin, 
John Morton, 
Geo. Clymer, 
Jas. Smith, 
Geo. Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
Geo. Ross. 

Delaware. 
Csesar Rodney, 
Geo. Read, 
Tho. M'Kean. 

Maryland. 
Samuel Chase, 
Wm. Paca, 
Thos. Stone, 



Charles Carroll of 
Carrollton. 

Virginia. 
George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Th. Jefferson, 
Benja. Harrison, 
Thos. Nelson, Jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton. 

North] Carolina. 
Wm. Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 

Soiith Carolina. 
Edward Rutledge, 
Thos. Heyward, 

Junr. , 
Thomas Lynch, Junr. 
Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia. 
Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
Geo. Walton. 



219. "Washington at New York. — Having forced the British 
to evacuate Boston, Washington soon repaired to New York. 
Washington had selected New York because he felt sure 
that Howe would make his next attack at that point. In 
this his judgment proved correct, for hardly had the Ameri- 
can army seized and fortified the commanding position of 
Brooklyn Heights ere the British arrived from Halifax 
under Sir William Howe, reinforced by a fleet from England 
under command of Admiral Howe, brother of Sir William. 

220. The Howes Offer Peace. — The British government still 
clung to the idea that the colonists would * 'repent of their 



186 



HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 



folly," and the Howes were jointly commissioned to publish 
an amnesty proclamation offering pardon to all those who 
had been engaged in rebellion. As they were not commis- 
sioned to recognize the existence in any way of a separate 




«j« WILMINGTON 



^ ::wwi 



f. 









/ 



government, and had nothing to offer but pardon to those 
who would admit no guilt, nothing came of their overtures 
and they were under tlie necessity of continuing the war. 
They at once planned to capture New York, seize the Hud- 
son river, and cut New England off from the other colonies. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 187 

They began operations by landing a heavy force for the 
capture of Brooklyn Heights. 

221. Battle of Long Island — August 27: Loss of New 
York. — The intrenchments on Brooklyn Heights were 
occupied by General Israel Putnam with nine thousand 
men. The British advanced to the attack in three divi- 
sions. Two of these divisions succeeded in surrounding a 
force under Generals Stirling and Sullivan and these two 
generals with a thousand troops were captured. Night com- 
ing on, the British took position as if for a siege. Washington 
arrived with reinforcements the next day. Knowing that the 
British would cut off the retreat of the army if it was not 
moved at once, Washington that night set the army in motion. 
Under cover of a dense fog he safely carried the entire 
army to the New York side bringing with him every piece 
of ordnance and all his army supplies. New York was now 
untenable and AVashington withdrew to the highlands north 
of the city. 

222. Nathan Hale. — An incident occurred during the Long 
Island campaign which brought home to the colonists the 
cruelties of war. Nathan Hale was a captain in the Ameri- 
can army. Washington, desiring information concerning 
the movements of the British on Long Island, Captain Hale 
volunteered for the service. He had secured the informa- 
tion and was returning, when he was recognized and arrested. 
He was tried and convicted as a spy and after a brief period 
was hanged. The patriot was treated with undue severity — 
the farewell letters of his motherland sister being destroyed, 
the service of a minister denied, and even a Bible withheld. 
He was a true patriot to the last, going to his death with 
these noble words: "I regret only that I have but one life 
to give to my country." 

223. Retreat of Washington Across the Delaware. — Gen- 
eral Howe now advanced to the highlands outside the city of 
New York whereupon Washington withdrew from Harlem 
Heights to White Plains, later intrenching himself at 



188 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

North Castle. The British commander, however, remem- 
bering his experience at Bunker Hill, could not be induced 
to give battle there. The Hudson was guarded by Forts 
Washington and Lee. It was hoped that these forts would 
be strong enough to prevent the British fleet, under Admiral 
Howe, from passing up the river, but the fleet, passing them, 
landed a large body of the British above the forts, thus 
practically cutting off their garrisons from the rest of the 
American army. Washington thereupon ordered General 
Nathaniel Greene to abandon the forts unless some military 
condition arose that would make their retention possible. 
Greene thought Fort Washington on the east bank of the 
river might be held and reinforced it. But Greene erred 
in judgment. Howe sent an overwhelming force against the 
fort, and though the Americans desperately defended their 
position, their whole force, consisting of three thousand 
men, was captured (November 16), and an immense quantity 
of supplies fell into the hands of the British, 

Fort Lee was abandoned and its garrison of two thousand 
men joined General Israel Putnam's force in New Jersey. 
AVashington himself took command of this force of six thou- 
sand men, and, sending peremptory orders for General 
Charles Lee to follow and join him, with his troops, moved 
slowly south, seeking a strong position for the battle which 
he felt sure Howe would now hazard. 

224. General Charles Lee. — Lee, upon whom Washington 
depended, proved unworthy. He had seen service in the Eng- 
lish army, and, coming to America with Braddock, had served 
through the French war. He was now second in command. 
Could he by delay or in any other manner compass the down- 
fall of Washington, he was in line for immediate advance- 
ment to the head of the army. Sending flimsy excuses to 
Washington to account for his delay, he occupied himself in 
strengthening his position and in poisoning the public mind 
against the commander-in-chief, who by this time had begun 
to suffer from criticism incident to the loss of New York 



THE STKUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDEKOE 189 

and the two forts on the Hudson. Finally, under a positive 
order from Washington to join him immediately with all his 
troops, Lee set out leisurely with but half his force and was 
captured by the enemy when he had proceeded but a short 
distance. It is not known whether this was a part of a pre- 
arranged plan or not, but Lee's subsequent career seems to 
indicate that it was. He was taken as a prisoner to New 
York and while there held the confidence of General Howe, 
giving that general all the information he was possessed of 
concerning the American cause. Just before the evacuation 
of Philadelphia, of which we shall learn later, Lee was 
exchanged, and Washington, in ignorance of his true char- 
acter, gave him his old command. Lee's action at the battle 
of Monmouth shortly after his exchange gives added color 
to the charge that his exchange was part of his plan to ruin 
the American cause if he could not rule it. Before the war 
closed he was cashiered from the army and passed the 
remainder of his days in obscurity and disgrace. 

225. The Barkest Period of the War. — After the capture 
of Lee, Sullivan took command of his division. In the 
meantime Washington had retreated slowly toward the 
Delaware, being followed by a force double his number under 
the command of Lord Cornwallis, one of the fighting gen- 
erals of the English army. The retreat was conducted with 
great skill, but so close were the two armies that bridges 
fired by the Americans would still be burning when the British 
arrived. With his usual forethought, Washington sent men 
ahead to collect all the boats on the Delaware river. With 
these boats he carried his army across the Delaware with 
such dispatch that when Cornwallis arrived the swollen 
Delaware lay between him and his prey. But as Washington 
lighted his fires on the opposite bank, it was in the midst of 
a gloom that would have crushed the spirit of an ordinary 
general. His little army had dwindled to less than three 
thousand men and many of these were not fit for duty. 
The patriot army was poorly fed and clothed because of the 



190 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

mismanagement of the quartermaster's department. The 
army was unpaid because Congress had been unable to pro- 
vide a stable currency in the face of so many disasters. 
Only the indomitable will and superb courage of Washing- 
ton saved the cause from utter ruin. 

226. Trenton— December 26, 1776: Princeton — Jan. 3, 
1777. — It was in the midst of this despondency and gloom 
that a revelation of Washington's genius caused a flood of 
light and ecstasy of joy to sweep over the country. Corn- 
wallis had disposed his troops comfortably in the several 
small towns along the Delaware, across from Washington's 
position. Here the British rested in fancied security, waiting 
for the river to freeze over, when they expected to cross 
and crush the American army. At Trenton, across from 
the patriot camp, was a body of one thousand Hessians. 
Burlington, further down, sheltered another force. One of 
the American divisions was to attack this latter force. 
Another was to cross directly to Trenton, landing below the 
village, while Washington, with two thousand five hundred 
troops, was to cross nine miles above and march down the 
east side of the Delaware. Boats were gathered for the pur- 
pose, and on Christmas Day all was ready. Ice was running 
in heavy floes in the river and after several attempts, two of 
the divisions gave up the task of crossing the stream. Not 
so the dauntless commander. Receiving word as he was 
about to embark that the other divisions had returned, 
Washington seemed to take courage at their failure. Mid 
drifting snow and the ceaseless rush of ice, the boatmen 
worked manfully until Washington's entire division had 
reached the opposite bank. A swift march to Trenton, a 
sudden charge, the Hessian call to arms, the surrender — 
tell briefly the story of this brilliant exploit. W^ashington 
returned to camp with a thousand prisoners and with the 
loss of but four of his men. 

Again crossing on the 29th of December, Washington 
occupied Trenton. Cornwallis soon confronted him there. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDEXCE 191 

Washington's position was one of peril — a raging river was 
behind him, in front of him was a veteran army in the hands 
of a famous general. But Washington was equal to the 
occasion. Learning that Cornwallis had left part of his 
force at Princeton, he boldly lighted his campfires, and the 
two armies bivouacked for tlie night. Leaving a small force 
to keep up the fires, Washington marched silently around the 
British and in the morning fell with sudden fnry on the 
detachment at Princeton, which he routed with great loss. 
Before Cornwallis could recover from his surprise, Washing- 
ton withdrew into the hill country near Morristown, a strong 
position which guarded the Highlands on the Hudson and 
the roads to Philadelphia as well. Cornwallis recognized his 
danger at once and retreated in all haste to New Brunswick 
in order to preserve his communication with New York. 

The effect of these brilliant achievements was to put new 
life into the languishing patriot cause. Washington was 
the hero of the hour. So great a military expert as Fred- 
erick the Great pronounced Washington's successes as 
among the most brilliant achievements of history. Supplies 
came in, the army was clothed and paid, and when the 
spring opened, hope had revived. 

EVENTS OF 1777 

227. Lafayette, Steuben, and other Foreign Patriots. — The 

Revolution had now passed the stage of a "mere rebellion by 
a band of insurgents," as it had been characterized at first 
in England and on the continent. The brilliant work of 
Washington as a general was attracting wide attention and 
many able officers came from Europe to America, either to 
witness the conduct of the war or to engage actively in the 
service of the colonies. Of the latter class were Lafayette, 
Steuben, De Kalb, Kosciuszko, and Count Pulaski. 

The Marquis de Lafayette was a young French nobleman 
whose love of liberty made him a firm friend of the colonies 
at the very beginning of the revolutionary struggle. He pos- 



192 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



sessed a large fortune and gave liberally to the patriot cause. 
Finally, fitting out a ship with supplies for the American 
army, he himself came to the colonies to fight for American 
liberty. He was but nineteen years of age, but the condi- 
tions of his coming and his manly bearing convinced Wash- 
ington that Lafayette could be intrusted with responsibility. 
The zeal with which he entered into the cause of the colonies 
led Congress to make him a major-general and give him a 
place in Washington's command, where he served with dis- 
tinction throughout the remainder of the war. 

Baron Steuben had seen service under the great Frederick. 
He joined the army during the terrible winter at Valley 
Forge and, by his vigorous methods and his talent as a drill- 
master, put new life and strength into the patriot cause. 

Baron De Kalb, a French officer who had come to Amer- 
ica with Lafayette, entered the army and did valiant service, 
especially in the southern campaign, where in one of the 
engagements he was mortally wounded. 

Kosciuszko was a young Polish officer who early joined the 
patriot cause. His principal service was rendered as an 
engineer, he having planned the fortifications at West Point. 

Count Pulaski was another Polish officer who did valiant 
service at Brandywine and Charleston, receiving his death 
wound at the battte of Savannah. 

228. British Plan of Attack— 1777.— The British now 
resolved to possess the upper Hudson and Champlain regions 
and establish a line of communication from New York to 
Canada, thereby completely severing New England from the 
other colonies. A campaign of a threefold nature was therefore 
undertaken to carry out this plan. General Sir John Burgoyne 
was to lead an army from Canada by way of Lake Champlain ; 
Major Barry St. Leger was to enter the Mohawk valley by 
way of Lake Ontario; and Howe was to move up the Hudson 
River. As soon as practicable, the three forces were to 
cooperate for the capture and overthrow of the American 
army of the north. 



I 



THE iSTKUGGLE FOR IXDEPEXDEXCE 



i'j3 



229. Burgoyne Starts. — Burgoyne's first great blunder was 
the enlistment of a liorde of savages, who, as his army 
advanced, murdered friend and foe alike. Their atrocities 
drove the colonists to a frenzy and the whole countryside 

rose against them and their 




English sponsors. This made 
it impossible for Burgoyne to 
secure supplies for his army as 
he advanced. He therefore had 
to keep up his line of com- 
munication from Canada, which 
greatly reduced his fighting 
force at the front. General 
Philip Schuyler commanded 
the patriot army in the Hud- 
son valley. Not having suffi- 
cient force to meet the enemy 
in open battle, he adopted a 
policy that was ultimately suc- 
cessful. He slowly retreated 
before Burgoyne and when the 
portage between Lake George 
and the Hudson was reached, 
obstructed the roads by fell- 
ing trees and burning bridges 
with such success that Bur- 
goyne's army could advance 
but a mile a day. This gave 
time for Schuyler's army to 
recruit from the surrounding 
country. 

230. The Battle of Bennington— August 16.— Supplies for 
the invading army were becoming scarce. Burgoyne learned 
that at Bennington in the Green Mountain country, was a 
patriot storehouse, and he detached Colonel Baum with a 
thousand Hessian troops, with instructions to capture the 



194 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

place. Colonel John Stark assumed the command of the 
Americans of that region, but all he could muster was a little 
band of four hundred patriots. Colonel Stark's battle call 
has become famous: "There the Kedcoats are, my boys. 
"VVe must capture them ere night, or Mollie Stark will be a 
widow." In the battle that ensued over two hundred of 
the Hessians were killed and seven hundred captured. 

231. St. Leger Meets with Disaster. — The British cause 
was further endangered by the total rout of the expedition 
under St. Leger who had proceeded down the Mohawk valley 
to attack the Americans at Fort Stanwix. While General 
Nicholas Herkimer was hastening to the relief of the besieged 
fort, he was ambuscaded at Oriskany by St. Leger's Tories 
and Indians. A bloody battle ensued, in which one third of 
those engaged were left dead upon the field. Herkimer with 
but a remnant of his followers was received into the inclosure 
of the fort. During the battle with Herkimer the brave 
company in the fort sallied forth and, driving off the British, 
captured their entire camp and supplies. Returning from 
Oriskany the British continued the siege. Benedict Arnold 
soon appeared upon the scene, whereupon St. Leger, deserted 
by his Indian allies, was forced to retreat. 

232. The Stars and Stripes. — When the American force 
made the sally from Fort Stanwix mentioned above it 
captured five British flags, which were at once hoisted upside 
down above the ramparts of the fort. High above them all 
there was flung to the breeze for the first time the Stars and 
Stripes — the new flag of the American Republic. Congress 
had voted on June 14, 1777, that the national flag should 
consist of thirteen horizontal red and white stripes — seven 
red and six white — with thirteen white stars in a circle on a 
blue field in the upper staff corner of the flag. None of the 
new flags having been issued to the army at the time, the 
Americans at Fort Stanwix hastily made one from a soldier's 
blue jacket, scraps of red flannel, and strips of an officer's 
white shirt. Prior to the adoption of the Stars and Stripes, 



THE STRUGGLE FOR IKDEPENDEKCE 195 

flags of various designs had been used by the different patriot 
armies. Washington used the new flag for the first time at 
the battle of Brandywine. The flag was changed in 1792 to 
flf teen stripes and fifteen stars on account of the admission of 
Vermont and Kentucky to the union. In 1818, when it was 
restored to thirteen stripes, it was voted that the number of 
stars in the blue field should equal the number of states in 
the Republic. 

233. The Two Battles of Saratoga— Sept. 19 and Oct. 7 : 
Burgoyne's Surrender — Oct. 17. — Burgoyne now had but one 
hope. Howe must come, and that quickly, or disaster would 
follow. Howe did not come, nor could Burgoyne even hear 
from him. Affairs grew worse daily in the British camp, as 
the Americans were now in sufficient force to give battle. 
Just at this moment occurred one of those events in army 
politics which sometimes disgrace the page of history. 
The patient, vigilant, resourceful General Schuyler, just 
ready to pluck the fruits of his consummate strategy, 
was superseded by General Horatio Gates. Schuyler's 
patriotism shines out on the pages of American history — 
he communicated to Gates every detail of his plan to capture 
the British army and remained with Gates to assist him in 
carrying out these plans. Burgoyne, now thoroughly beset, 
decided to try to fight his way southward, where he hoped 
to meet Howe. Crossing the Hudson, Burgoyne attacked the 
Americans in their strongly intrenched position at Bemis 
Heights, and the first battle of Saratoga ensued (Sept. 19). 
After a fierce engagement Burgoyne was compelled to with- 
draw. Three weeks passed, and as aid promised by Howe 
still failed to come, Burgoyne decided to try to break through 
the American lines. The British attacked desperately, but 
they were so outnumbered by the American army that they 
were forced to retire (Oct. 7). Burgoyne now attempted 
to retreat, but on reaching the river he found all the 
fords strongly guarded. The Americans were pressing him 
eagerly on every side, his supplies were gone, and nothing 



100 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



was left to him but to surrender his entire army, comprising 
nearly six thousand men. This surrender occurred on the 
ITth of October. The defeat of one of her ablest generals 
and of an army of her best troops humiliated England beyond 
measure and correspondingly raised the hopes of the colonies. 
France, pleased with the result, soon openly espoused the 
cause of the colonies and the French alliance followed. 

234. Battle of Brandy wine — Sept. 11: Philadelphia 
Taken. — It was the last of June and Burgoyne's expedition, 




-^i^r^^^^--<^'^^^^:^:AJ^^'^ 









PHILADELPHIA AND VTCI>rTTY 



just started, was moving southward from Canada with but 
little opposition, when Howe made a fatal error by acting on 
che advice of his prisoner, Charles Lee. He moved south 
against Washington instead of assisting Burgoyne's expedi- 
tion as originally planned. The following of Lee's advice by 
Howe resulted, as we have just seen, in the loss to the British 
government of an army of ten thousand men, the disaffec- 
tion of a large number of Indian allies, the surrender of the 
control of a vast extent of territory, and further in the secur- 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPEXDEXCE 19? 

ing to the American republic its recognition as an independ- 
ent nation by the French government. Fearing that 
Washington might strike him at an unfavorable point if he 
marched overland, Howe embarked his army on the fleet and 
sailed for Philadelphia by way of Chesapeake Bay. He con- 
sumed nearly two months in the voyage, and when he landed 
his troops at the head of Chesapeake Bay found Washington 
in his front. The American commander retreated slowly 
before Howe's advance. Finally taking position on Brandy- 
wine Creek on the 11th of September, he met the British 
in the battle of Brandywine, which was a British victory, 
dearly bought. Two weeks later Howe entered Philadelphia. 

235. Germantown — Oct. 4. — The greater part of the Brit- 
ish army was encamped about Germantown, a village six 
miles from Philadelphia, and Washington planned an attack 
on it. On the night of October 4, separating his army into 
four divisions, he closed in on the enemy by four different 
roads. The British were yielding on all sides, when one of 
their divisions took a position at a stone house which 
offered excellent opportunity for defence. During the 
delay occasioned by the stubborn resistance at this point, 
two divisions of the American army met, and, a dense fog 
preventing recognition, engaged in a pitched battle. Before 
the mistake was discovered the Americans were seized with 
a panic, whereupon the British, recovering themselves, com- 
pelled Washington to withdraw. 

236. The Winter at Valley Forge. — Washington then went 
into winter quarters at Valley Forge, a point on the west side 
of the Schuylkill Eiver, twenty miles from Philadelphia, as 
the most available place from which to watch Howe. That 
winter was a most severe one, and Howe, always an indolent 
general, was well content to remain in his comfortable quar- 
ters in Philadelphia. It was fortunate for the Americans that 
no active field operations were required, for they were 
scantily clothed and had but few supplies save those secured 
from the country roundabout. Intense suffering was the 



198 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

portion of all, even the officers having the scantiest of fare. 
As in prosperity, so in adversity, the commander-in-chief of 
the army shared in its fortunes. He remained in the camp 
the entire winter, giving encouragement and counsel to all 
and keeping the men as busy as possible, that they might 
forget their sufferings. The bitterness of this period was 
made the greater to Washington from the fact that he knew 
it was due to the culpable neglect and mismanagement on 
the part of the commissary department. There was an 
abundance in the country to clothe and to feed the army. 
Washington did no greater service during the entire war than 
in holding the suffering patriot army together daring this 
terrible winter. 

EVENTS OF 1778 

237. The Conway Cabal. — This period of the war was one 

of discontent in both the army and in Congress, and was 
seized upon by ambitious and designing men as an opportune 
time to molest and annoy the commander-in-chief. Wash- 
ington had lost the Philadelphia campaign. Gates was the 
hero of the hour on account of Burgoyne's surrender, though 
the truth was that he deserved little credit. Congress, 
unfortunately, was full of politicians that winter, who failed 
to grasp the situation, or measure up to its requirements; 
and, shame be it said, laid all the blame on Washington. 
In this atmosphere a cabal was formed against Washington 
by a number of his subordinate officers with the purpose of 
deposing him from command and putting Gates in his place. 
Conway, the jealous inspector-general; Gates, the selfish 
schemer; Mifflin, the incompetent quartermaster-general, 
and a few others, were the leading conspirators. Owing to 
the popularity of Washington with the people, and to the 
foolish blunders made by these unworthy officers, tlie cabal 
failed utterly. It was met by the people with such a storm 
of indignation that all who could, hastened to deny connec- 
tion with it. 



THE STRUGGLE EOR INDEPENDENCE 199 

238. France Acknowledges the Independence of the United 
States of America — Feb. 6: The French Alliance. — From the 
very beginning of the war the colonies had had the sympathy 
of the French, who were pleased to be afforded an oppor- 
tunity to harass their old enemy, the English. But the 
French, while they had in secret greatly aided the American 
cause, could not be persuaded to acknowledge the inde- 
pendence of the colonies nor to aid them openly until it 
should become apparent to the French government that the 
colonies when thus supported by France could win in the 
struggle against the English. After tlie capture of Bur- 
goyne's army the French king felt that the time had come to 
deal England a blow. He therefore, early in February, acknowl- 
edged the independence of the United States of America. In 
the treaty which followed between France and the young 
republic it was agreed that neither party should make peace 
with England without the consent of the other. The French 
government had already made a large loan to the colonies. 
It now increased this loan and promised a fleet and four thou- 
sand troops at once. The alliance not only increased the 
fighting strength of the army, but strengthened the financial 
credit of the United States, as well; The French alliance 
was largely due to the influence of Benjamin Franklin at the 
French court. Franklin was the great diplomat of the 
Revolution. 

239. England Offers All but Independence. — England, still 
suffering from the humiliation caused by the Burgoyne sur- 
render, sought to stay the alliance, but her efforts were in 
vain. She offered peace, everything but independence, if the 
colonies would but renounce the alliance; but neither Con- 
gress nor Washington would listen to England's appeal. 

240. Clinton Evacuates Philadelphia : Battle of Monmouth 
— June 28. — As soon as Sir Henry Clinton, who had suc- 
.ceeded Howe, heard of the departure of the French fleet 
for America, he decided to abandon Philadelphia, lest New 
York should be captured by the combined armies. In the 



200 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



latter part of June, 1778, he took up his march for New 
York through New Jersey. AVashington was loth to allow 
Clinton to reach New York without striking his army a blow. 
He therefore set the American army in motion and, keeping 
abreast of the British on parallel roads, watched for an 
opportunity. It presented itself at Monmouth, where Clin- 
ton turned east, leaving the van of his army exposed. "Wash- 
ington detached six thousand men and sent them against 
this body. Unfortunately for the success of the venture, 

Washington put General Charles 
Lee in command. Lee had been 
exchanged in April, and was 
allowed to claim his old position. 
The attack was beo^un and was 
proceeding most favorably to the 
Americans when Lee ordered a 
retreat, and confusion 
soon reigned. But 
Washington, receiv- 
ing word of the re- 
treat, rode in hot 
haste to the field, and 
a f t e r reprimanding 
Lee severely, rallied 
the troops and saved 
the day. It was a 
draw n battle, the 
British continuing on their way to New York. Lee's dis- 
graceful conduct proved his undoing. He was court-mar- 
tialed, suspended from the service for a year, and later 
dismissed from the army. 

241. Wyoming Massacre— July 3. — Wyoming Valley was 
a fertile frontier valley in Pennsylvania which had been settled 
largely by people from Connecticut. Most of their fight- 
ing force had enlisted in the patriot cause, and when the 
Tory leader. Major Ikitler, and his Indians appeared in the 




THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 201 

valley in July there were but a few boys and aged men 
to ojDpose him. The inhabitants had been warned of But- 
ler's approach and a force of two hundred and thirty brave 
souls had finally gathered. The odds were too great and 
the settlers were soon overwhelmed. The scalps of all but 
three of the brave little band dangled from Indian girdles 
before the night closed on the horrible butchery. Cherry 
Valley, in New York, also suffered heavily at the hands 
of the Tories and Indians under the leadership of the noted 
Joseph Brant, chief of the Mohawk Indians. 

The next year a force under General Sullivan completely 
routed the Indians, and the frontier was thus relieved for a 
time of a terrible scourge. 

242. Sullivan and the French Fail at Newport. — The prom- 
ised French force, consisting of a fleet with some four thou- 
sand soldiers, arrived early in the summer of 1778. The 
British had collected a considerable force at Newport. 
Accordingly, great preparations were made for a combined 
attack there. Sullivan was put in command of the land 
forces, and everything pointed to success. During the 
last days of July the French fleet, under Count d'Estaing, 
appeared and the attack was about to begin when operations 
were interrupted by the appearance of the English fleet 
under Admiral Howe. A halt was called and the French 
commander put to sea for the purpose of engaging the Eng- 
lish fleet. 

Just as the engagement was about to begin, a severe storm 
arose, partially wrecking both fleets. The French fleet went 
to Boston for repairs and Howe returned to New York. It 
being harvest time, the militia refused to remain, and thus 
Sullivan found himself unable to push the siege. 

243. Savannah Captured : Georgia Retaken by the British. 
— The last event of the year 1778 was the capture in Decem- 
ber of Savannah by three thousand British under Sir Archi- 
bald Campbell. The city of Savannah and the whole 
province of Georgia thus fell into the hands of the British, 



202 HISTORY- OF THE UNITED STATES _ 

and the royal governor, who had been deposed by the colo- 
nists, was now reinstated. 

EVENTS OF 1779 

244. Paul Jones and the Navy. — During the Revolution the 
navy was a source of great strength to the American cause. 
Not, however, the navy as it is known to-day. The navy of 
the Revolution consisted of a few ships of as large dimen- 
sions as were built in those days, and a vast number of 
smaller craft owned by private individuals. It is estimated 
that seventy thousand Americans served on board ship during 

the Revolution, as against 
forty - seven thousand on 
land. In the first year of 
the war Congress began the 
construction of a navy, and 
thirteen frigates were built. 
Some of these greatly 
harassed the enemy for a 
SHIPS OF THE PERIOD wliilc, but thc strougth and 

vigilance of the British navy 
at last proved too great for them, so that by 1781 all these 
frigates had been captured or destroyed. The service of the 
smaller craft was felt in the privateering expeditions which 
were carried on with untiring zeal by the American sailors 
— the commerce of England suffering the loss of millions 
by their activity. 

The most noted of tlie regularly commissioned officers of 
the navy was Paul Jones. In September of 1779, he was 
put in command of a small fleet and soon fell in with a fleet 
of merchantmen under the protection of the Serapis and 
another vessel. With his own ship, the Bon Homme Richard, 
he engaged the Serapis. The sailing qualities of the Serapis 
being superior to the Richard, Jones closed with his antagonist 
and lashed the two vessels together. In the desperate hand-to- 
hand fight which then ensued, nearly half the force engaged 




THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



203 



was killed or wounded. Both ships were on fire and the 
Richard was sinking, when the British colors were struck. 
Both combatants exhibited the very sublimity of courage. 
It is said that Captain Pearson of the Serapis stood abso- 








lutely alone on the deck when the 

surrender was made, those of his 
crew left alive being too exhausted 
to stand. 

245. Colonel Clark and His 

Work in the West. — Young men 
played an important part in the 

Revolution. At twenty - six 
George Eogers Clark did won- 
ders in the west, and a service 
to his country, the results of 
which can hardly be estimated. 
After the French war, the old 
French line of military posts, 
extending from the Great Lakes 
to the lower Mississippi, had been 



204 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

occupied by the English and strongly garrisoned at all 
important points. Through the influence of Governor 
Patrick .Henry of Virginia, Clark was granted permission 
to organize an expedition having for its object nothing 
less than the wresting of the entire region beyond the 
Alleghanies from the control of the British. Proceeding 
in the early summer of 1779 to the mouth of the Ohio, 
he left his boats and marched overland to the British posts 
of Kaskaskia and Cahokia, both of which places surrendered 
without resistance. Colonel Hamilton, in command of the 
British post at Detroit, now heard of Clark's operations, and 
with the idea of putting a stop to them, he early in the winter 
occupied a former British outpost at Vincennes. Here Clark 
attacked him in February, after a most difficult overland 
march, and forced his surrender. An American expedition 
from Pittsburg in the meantime having taken the post of 
Natchez, on the lower Mississippi, the whole region was now 
in the hands of the Americans. Colonel Clark then met the 
Indians in council and convinced them that their best inter- 
ests demanded the cultivation of the friendship of the new 
republic. When the treaty was made in 1783, Clark's suc- 
cessful occupation of that region secured the Mississippi as 
the western boundary of the United States. 

246. Slow Progress of the War: '' Mad Anthony " Wayne 
at Stony Point — July 15. — There were few military move- 
ments of consequence undertaken during 1779. England 
was engaged in a "battle royal" with several nations openly, 
and she had incurred the enmity of nearly every nation of 
Europe. Ireland, also, was restless, and gave her much 
concern. She could therefore spare no troops for large 
movements. On his part, Washington, had to be content with 
keeping Clinton shut up in New York, and strengthening the 
fortifications on the Hudson Eiver. In the early spring he 
determined to fortify Stony Point, a rocky promontory 
admirably situated to command the river. But Clinton also 
had designs on the same position, and, sending a strong force 



Tin-: STKUGC^LE FOR INDEPENDENCE 205 

up the river in May, the Americans were compelled to 
retire. Washington at once planned its capture. One of 
his most trusted generals, "Mad Anthony" W^yne, so 
called by the soldiers because of his daring bravery, was 
given command of twelve hundred picked troops and 
asked to capture Stony Point. The plan involved the secret 
passage of the marsh at low tide under cover of darkness, then 
a swift bayonet charge up the hill. On the night of July 15 
a friendly negro huckster, who had access to the fort, 
was used by Wayne to secure the capture of the British 
pickets. His whole force then crossed the intervening marsh 
and was swarming up the hill before the British were aware 
of Wayne's presence. The rush of Wayne's men was irre- 
sistible, and after a few minutes of bloody work in the 
trenches the fort was surrendered. 

247. Paulus Hook — August 18. — Among the smaller suc- 
cesses of the patriots this year, none was more daring than 
that of "Light Horse Harry" Lee, at Paulus Hook, New 
Jersey. 

This point was well within the British lines on the New 
Jersey coast, and was rather carelessly guarded by a small 
force. Lee having worked his way within the British lines, 
ordered a charge at the moment of discovery and the fort was 
captured, with all its garrison. Though its immediate 
evacuation was necessary, Lee brought off his men and 
prisoners with the loss of but two men killed and three 
wounded. 

248. Lincoln and the French Fail at Savannah. — General 
Benjamin Lincoln had been sent south to direct operations 
against the British. In conjunction with the French fleet, 
he, in September, attempted to recapture Savannah. His 
attack, though spirited, met with a bloody repulse. D'Estaing 
and Lincoln withdrew, leaving Georgia in the possession of 
the British. The close of t%e year 1779 thus found the 
British in possession of but three important points on the 
coast — New York, Newport, and Savannah. 



206 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



EVENTS OF 1780 

249. The British in the South. — Failing to crush the 
rebellion in the northern colonies, and having met with but 




little success in the mid- 
dle colonies, the British 
war department now de- 
termined to shift the 
principal theater of the 
war to the southern col- 
onies. The British al- 
ready held Georgia and 
were encouraged in the belief that the large Tory element 
in the Carolinas would make the subjugation of those colo- 



[& SAVANNAH 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 20^ 

Dies an easy matter. But as usual, they "reckoned without 
their host," — none of the colonists were more loyal than the 
Carolinians. 

250. Charleston Captured — May 12. — Clinton himself 
came to take charge of operations in the south, bringing a 
fleet and large reinforcements. Washington had sent Gen- 
eral Benjamin Lincoln to help the southern patriots. Lin- 
coln garrisoned Charleston with a force of seven thousand 
men and attempted to hold that point against Clinton's 
superior force, aided by the British fleet. After sustaining 
a forty days' siege, Lincoln was compelled to surrender his 
whole army. 

Clinton then returned north, leaving Cornwallis in com- 
mand. Cornwallis now issued a proclamation which 
required the inhabitants to declare themselves friends or 
foes. This proclamation precipitated a fierce partisan war- 
fare in the Carolinas. Sir Bannastre Tarleton, a British 
cavalry commander, began a campaign of devastation. He 
was so vindictive and so cruel toward all Americans who 
were so unfortunate as to fall into his hands that the whole 
south became aroused, and before the British were aware, 
another American army was in the field. 

261. Gates in Command : Battle of Camden — August 16. — 
General Horatio Gates was now sent south to take charge of 
the American armies there. He found in North Carolina 
the nucleus of an army, which gained in numbers as he 
marched south ; however, many of his troops were raw militia. 

Camden, South Carolina, had been selected by the British 
as a point from which to operate. Gates determined to cap- 
ture that point, but he delayed the attack so long that 
Cornwallis was able to bring up reinforcements from Charles- 
ton. Even then the British force was much smaller than 
the American, though all were veterans. When ten miles from 
Camden, Gates went into camp for two days, while recon- 
noitering the position of the enemy. He finally moved to the 
attack, making a night march. Cornwallis had determined 



^^ HISTORY OF THE UKITEDSTATES^^^^^^^H 

on the same tactics. When the two armies met they lay on 
their arms until morning, when the battle ensued. Gates 
foolishly placed his raw militia at the front. They became 
panic stricken at the outset, and soon the whole army, save 
the Maryland regulars under the brave Baron De Kalb, who 
fell mortally wounded, was in headlong flight. Gates him- 
self -fled at the head of his troops, and it is said did not 
pause in his wild flight for seventy miles. This ended the 
military career of that scheming officer. He was at once 
succeeded in command by Nathaniel Greene, one of the best 
generals in the army, whose brilliant work soon brought 
success to the American cause in the south. 

252. The Yeomanry at King's Mountain — October 7. — 
The British again had full sway in South Carolina and they 
continued to annoy the Americans. As long as they carried 
on their operations in the low country, they were compara- 
tively free from resistance, but as tliey went into the hill 
country and toward the mountains, they frequently met 
with determined opposition. Major Patrick Ferguson had 
been sent into the highlands on the border of the two states 
with a small British force, Cornwallis believing that 'the 
Tories would join Ferguson on the march. Instead of being 
joined by Tories, Ferguson was met by an army of southern 
patriots — a large number of whom had come from the west 
slope of the Blue Ridge. They were hunters and trappers 
in picturesque costume — each man was a sharpshooter. By 
the time the British had reached King's Mountain, three 
thousand Americans were on their trail and Ferguson was 
brought to bay. The fight was as picturesque as the partici- 
pants. Ferguson took position on the side of the mountain, 
where he found strong natural intrenchments of rock and 
tree. He was at once surrounded by the yeoman army, 
who were masters at this kind of fighting. Ferguson at last 
fell, mortally wounded, and the British surrendered. 

253. Partisan Leaders — Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Lee. 
— Partisan warfare is always merciless because so much of 



THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPEXDEXCE 209 

personal enmity is woven into it. There was little of it in 
New England, but in New York, New Jersey, and South 
Carolina, it was carried on with a bitterness which threatened 
at times to exterminate whole communities. From the 
beginning of the war there had been much of it in South 
Carolina, for there had always been a feeling of animosity 
existing between the aristocratic planter of the low country 
and the small farmer of the hill country. There were 
hotbeds of Toryism in the low country, but patriotism was 
correspondingly strong among the hills — whence came leaders 
like Francis Marion, Thomas Sumter, Andrew Pickens, and 
Henry Lee, of infinite energy and with a zeal in the cause 
born of personal wrongs endured. Around each of them 
was gathered a band of kindred spirits, who knew no fear, 
and who courted danger. When the American army was in 
their vicinity, they attached themselves to it as scouts and 
spies, for they knew every secret road and by-path. When 
the army was driven out, they stayed, and from their fast- 
nesses in the swamps or in the mountains fell upon small 
parties of the British, or visited dire punishment on Tories 
who had been active in giving assistance to the British. 
These partisan bands greatly aided General Greene in his 
reclaiming of the south from the British. 

254. Benedict Arnold. — Hardly had the rattle of musketry 
ceased on the now classic field of Lexington, before Benedict 
Arnold was in the saddle and at the head of a company of 
students was off for Boston. He did valiant service at 
Ticonderoga, and at the storming of Quebec. At the first 
battle of Saratoga, where he was severely wounded, his 
bravery excelled that of all others. He had suffered untold 
hardships in the defence of his country. No single general 
in all the service excelled his brilliant record. Had he 
died of his wounds, the name of Arnold would have been 
bright on the page of history. 

255. Arnold at Philadelphia. — Arnold was appointed by 
Washington to the command of the military district of 



210 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 

Philadelphia, where he was thrown much into the society of 
the Tory element, and yielded to unpatriotic influences. 
He became extravagant, and in order to discharge his private 
debts, committed indiscretions in the use of the public 
property under his control. He was tried before a military 
court on the charge of dishonesty, but there being little 
proof to sustain the charge, it was required only that he 
receive a reprimand from the commander-in-chief. This 
Washington gave in a most considerate manner. 

Arnold, feeling that his services to his country had not 
been appreciated, and deeply offended by the sentence of the 
court, resolved on revenge. 

256. West Point and Treason. — At his own request Arnold 
was transferred to West Point and immediately opened nego- 
tiations with General Clinton at New York, for the purpose 
of betraying into the hands of the British this, the strongest 
military fortification under American control. As a personal 
interview was necessary, Clinton sent Major Andre, a young 
man of most excellent character and high standing in the 
British army, to represent him. At this meeting Arnold 
delivered to Andre the plans of the fortifications. Secreting 
these plans in his boot Andre set out on his return. He had 
passed through the most hostile part of the country, and 
would soon have been within the British lines, when, un- 
luckily for him, he was noticed by several patriots, who 
insisted on a search of his person, and finding the papers, 
pronounced him a spy. Andre offered them a large reward 
if they would allow him to pass, but they laughed at his 
offer and immediately gave him up to an American officer. 
Arnold, learning of the arrest, escaped down the river to tlie 
British sloop Vulture. 

257. The Fate of Andre. — Major Andre was tried by a 
military tribunal of twelve of the most experienced generals 
in the American army. General Greene was made chairman 
and Lafayette also served on this board. Andre was 
sentenced to meet the death of a spy. On account of 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 211 

Andre's prominence in army and social life, the British put 
forth every effort possible to have the sentence commuted, 
but to no avail. Unlike the treatment accorded Captain 
Nathan Hale, he was allowed every privilege consistent with 
army discipline, but the sentence was carried out in due 
time. 

268. Arnold's Subsequent Career. — "Let me die in this old 
uniform — the uniform in which I fought my battles. May 
God forgive me for ever putting on any other." This was a 
sentiment uttered by Benedict Arnold on his death-bed in 
London twenty-one years later. The British had paid the 
price of his treason, — nearly thirty thousand dollars and the 
rank of brigadier-general in the British army. He received, 
as he merited, the execrations of all men of honor, and 
though he is said to have met it with a certain degree of 
bravado for a time, he gradually withdrew from the society 
of men, became morose and cynical, and died a friendless and 
despised outcast. 

EVENTS OF 1781 

259. Morgan Defeats Tarleton at the Cowpens — January 17. 

— Upon arriving in the south General Greene was confronted 
by the complete demoralization of an army due to the Cam- 
den disaster and the flight of Gates. Greene sent General 
Daniel Morgan into the hill country for recruits, who while 
thus engaged was attacked by Tarleton with a superior force 
at the Cowpens. Morgan by superior tactics completely 
routed Tarleton, who took to flight after suffering the almost 
complete destruction of his army. 

260. Greene Recovers the Carolinas and Georgia. — There 
now began one of the most famous campaigns of the war, 
each army being led by generals of consummate tact and 
skill. Cornwallis pushed rapidly forward to strike Morgan 
before he could rejoin Greene, but Morgan was too quick for 
Cornwallis and escaped to the north of the Yadkin. Here 
he was joined by Greene, who now assumed command, and 



212 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

a retreat was begun. Reaching the fords of the Dan before 
his pursuer, Greene crossed into Virginia. Cornwallis now 
gave up the chase and turned back with the idea of draw- 
ing Greene after him. Having attained his object of drawing 
the British army away from its base of supplies into a 
hostile country, General Greene recrossed the Dan and at 
Guilford Courthouse the two armies met in battle on March 
15. It resulted in a drawn battle, the six hundred which 
Cornwallis lost the first day weakening him to the extent 
that he could not renew the fight. Cornwallis then 
marched directly to Wilmington. After ascertaining that 
the British general really intended to give up the contest, 
Greene turned south. During the summer, with the aid of 
the partisan bands, he drove the British into Charleston and 
Savannah, winning many small engagements and the more 
considerable one at Eutaw Springs. Thus Greene had 
reclaimed the south, practically clearing the Carolinas and 
Georgia of the British army in less than a year. 

261. Lafayette, "The Boy," Outgenerals Cornwallis and 
Saves Virginia. — Cornwallis entered Virginia in May and 
began the same tactics with Lafayette which had failed so 
signally with Greene. But "the boy," as the British com- 
mander was pleased to call Lafayette, handled his little army 
with such skill that he completely baffled his pursuer. 
General Clinton, now thoroughly alarmed at the turn affairs 
had taken in the south, sent orders to Cornwallis to fortify 
some point on the Virginia coast from which he could 
cooperate with the British fleet. Cornwallis accordingly 
selected Yorktown and began erecting defences at that point. 
Lafayette notified Washington of Cornwallis's position, and 
threw his own troops across the neck of the peninsula in 
front of Yorktown. 

With Virginia saved by Lafayette and the Carolinas and 
Georgia reclaimed by Greene, the British had signally failed 
in their subjugation of the southern colonies. 

262. Battle of Yorktown — October 19. — Washington in 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 



213 



the meantime had been keeping Clinton shut up in New 
York, and was ready for whatever opportunity might 
offer to strike the British a blow. On learning that 
Cornwallis was at Yorktown, Washington conceived the 
daring idea of capturing the entire British army at that 
point. Of this he felt sanguine, for he had just received 
word that a large French fleet had set sail from the AVest 
Indies and that its destination was the mouth of Chesapeake 
Bay, where it was sure to encounter the British fleet before 
Yorktown. Selecting two thousand of his choicest colonial 
troops, and accompanied by Rochambeau with his four thou- 
sand French troops, Washington began the march overland 
to Yorktown. By making feints 
toward the enemy while march- 
ing through New Jersey, he so 
concealed his intentions from 
Clinton that Philadelphia was 
reached before his destination 
was suspected by the British 
commander - in - chief. Shortly 
after leaving Philadelphia Wash- 
ington had received news that the 
French fleet under De Grasse had already met the English fleet 
before Yorktown where it had cooperated with Lafayette so 
that the British were entrapped on both the land and water 
side. 

The fate of Cornwallis was sealed. Washington now 
hastened to Yorktown and began the siege. Cornwallis 
made several attempts to break through the lines, but failing, 
he at last surrendered his entire force. On the 19th of 
October, to the music of ^' The World Upside Down," the 
British marched out between the French and American lines. 

263, Yorktown, and its Effect in America.— The news of 
the capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown passed through the 
colonies like an electric shock. There was great rejoicing, 
for all felt that it was the end of the struggle. In Philadel- 




YORKTOWN AND VICINITY 



214 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

phia, the people went wild with delight as they heard the 
cry of the watchman, "Two o'clock, and Cornwallis is 
taken." Congress marched in a body to the Lutheran 
church and listened to prayers of thanksgiving for the vic- 
tory ; while England's prime minister, Lord North, threw up 
his hands with the wail, "It's all over; it's all over." 

END OF THE STRUGGLE 

264. Yorktown and its Effect on the British. — The effect of 
the Yorktown victory on the British was advantageous to 
the American cause. The American war had steadily 
grown in unpopularity among the English people. Charles 
Fox had referred to Howe's victory in the battle of Long 
Island as the "terrible news from Long Island," and on the 
floor of parliament had spoken of Washington's army as 
"our army." Burke had expressed the hope that the Amer- 
icans would succeed, and the great Pitt had declared that if 
he were an American he would never submit. 

A strong party in parliament now opposed the further 
prosecution of the war. Peace resolutions were introduced 
in the House of Commons, and though opposed by the 
power of the king and his ministry, were successfully 
passed. This movement forced Lord North to resign, and a 
new ministry was formed, in which the great Burke, Charles 
Fox, and Eichard Sheridan appeared as friends of the col- 
onies. 

Hereupon Sir Guy Carleton, who had succeeded Sir Henry 
Clinton, was instructed by parliament to open peace negotia- 
tions. This offer of peace, like previous offers, still referred 
to the American states as "revolted colonies," and sought 
to place the matter in such shape that the king could nego- 
tiate with each colony separately. Congress promjDtly refused 
to consider the offer and "the several states passed resolu- 
tions expressing their objection to separate negotiations, and 
declaring those to be enemies to America who should attempt 
to treat without the authority of Congress." 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 215 

265. Parliament Overrules King George. — King George 
now insisted on carrying on the war, but the peace party 
in parliament set itself squarely in opposition to the king 
by declaring that "the House of Commons would consider 
as enemies to his Majesty and the country, all who would 
advise or attempt a further prosecution of offensive war on 
the continent of North America." 

266. England Acknowledges the Independence of the United 
States — November 30, 1782. — From this defiance of the 
king it was but a step to the acknowledgment of the United 
States as a separate government among the nations of the 
world. This the new British ministry did, sending a 
representative to Paris to join with the American peace 
commissioners — John Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, 
and Henry Laurens — in a preliminary treaty of peace. 

267. Cessation of Hostilities by Proclamation — April 19, 
1783. — Hostilities in America had practically ceased after 
the Yorktown victory. It is true, however, that in the 
south, as well as in some sections of New York, and on the 
western border, a state of desultory war had been kept up 
between partisan bands of Americans and the Tory element, 
aided by small detachments of British soldiers. All this, 
however, ceased as news of the peace preliminaries reached 
America, when both Washington and Sir Guy Carleton were 
directed to proclaim a cessation of hostilities on land and sea. 
This Carleton soon did, and Washington followed on the 
19th of April, 1783 — the eighth anniversary of the battle of 
Lexington. 

268. The Treaty of Paris— September 3, 1783.— Two years 
had now passed since Yorktown, and yet peace had not been 
formally declared. France and Spain, hoping to gain the 
advantage over Great Britain, had been purposely prolonging 
the peace parley. France was also striving to fix the 
boundaries of the new republic to correspond to the bound- 
aries established by the Quebec Act. 

However, England having gained a decided victory over 



216 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the French fleet in the West Indies, and having defeated a 
combined French and Spanish assault upon Gibraltar, these 
two nations became alarmed, and early in January agreed to 
preliminaries at Versailles. This opened the way for the 
settlement of the whole matter, and on September 3, 1783, 
the formal treaty of peace between Great Britain and the 
United States was signed at Paris. 

The treaty contained the following provisions : 

(1.) Great Britain recognized the independence of the 
United States. 

(2.) The boundaries of the new republic were to extend 
to the Mississippi on the west, and from Nova Scotia, the St. 
Lawrence River, and the Great Lakes on the north, to the 
Spanish province of Florida on the south — Great Britain 
having by separate treaty with Spain ceded Florida to that 
power. 

(3.) The United States was accorded the right of fishing 
on the Canadian and Newfoundland coasts. 

(4.) Congress was to recommend to the state legislatures 
that they restore civil rights to all Tories and make pay- 
ment for all Tory property confiscated during the war. 

(5.) American merchants were to pay all debts contracted 
with British merchants prior to the war. 

(6.) So far as the two powers could control, the Mississippi 
River was to be forever open for free navigation to the citizens 
of both countries. 

(7.) And, lastly, it was agreed that the king would, with 
all convenient speed, and without causing any destruction, or 
carrying away any negroes or other property of the American 
inhabitants, withdraw all his armies, garrisons, and fleets 
from the United States. 

269. The American Army Disbands: the British Army 
Withdraws.— Thus the American Revolution was accom- 
plished. Early in November the American army was dis- 
banded — only a remnant under General Knox remaining. The 
French army had embarked for France the previous year. In 



THE STRUGGLE FUR IXDEPENDEXCE 217 

iaccordance with the provisions of the treaty, Sir Guy Carle- 
ton, on the 25th of November, 1783, withdrew the last rem- 
nant of the British army from the shores of America — 
excepting a few troops stationed on the western border. On 
the same day General Knox and his veteran army entered 
New York amidst the firing of cannon and the ringing of 
bells and the rejoicing of the populace. The day was long 
observed in New York as "Evacuation Day." 

Nine days later, Washington, in an affecting scene, bade 
farewell to his officers and immediately repaired to Annap- 
olis, Maryland, where Congress was in session, and returned 
to that body his commission as commander-in-chief of the 
American armies. Three weeks later he retired to private 
life on his estate at Mount Vernon. 

FINANCES OF THE REVOLUTION 

270. Cost of the War. — The independence of the United 
States had been gained at a heavy cost of both blood and 
treasure. Forty thousand American lives had been sacri- 
ficed, and an equal number of British. Over and above the 
amount spent by France ($90,000,000) the war had cost the 
United States $150,000,000, as opposed to $500,000,000 
spent by England. At the close of the war the entire 
country was burdened with debt, and commerce and business 
everywhere were demoralized. Even private morals had 
suffered a serious decline. 

271. Congress and the Army. — So heavy had its burdens 
become that Congress found itself at times unable to pay its 
soldiers, who often threatened mutiny, and on more than 
one occasion broke out in open revolt. At the time of the 
disbanding of the army, the most serious difficulties arose. 
Both men and officers were clamorous for their pay; 
mutiny was again threatened and a secret proposal to march 
to Philadelphia and demand satisfaction of Congress, was 
circulated. The whole affair threw the country into intense 
excitement — even threatening civil war. Congress was 



218 



HISTOHY or THE UXITED STATES 



unpopular with the army, which was now on the point of 
refusing to disband unless its pay were advanced. A crisis 
was averted only through the prompt action of Washington, 
whose great influence alone brought about a satisfactory 
understanding between congress and the army. The whole 
affair, however, greatly humiliated all patriotic Americans, 
and served to call attention early to the inability of congress 




CONTINENTAL CURRENCY 



under the form of government then existing in the states, to 
conduct the financial affairs of the republic. 

272. Continental Currency and Its Collapse — 1780. — 
Congress during the war issued $200,000,000 or more in 
paper money, with the result that the country soon became 
flooded with this "continental currency," which rapidly 
depreciated in value. In 1779 twenty dollars in paper 
equaled but one in specie — six months later it dropped to 
forty. Congress tried to stop this decline, but to no avail. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDEXCE 219 

At the close of the year 1780 this paper was worth but two 
cents on the dollar ; later, ten dollars in currency equaled 
but one cent in specie. 

"Not worth a continental," became a byword in the col- 
onies — paper money having fallen into such contempt. 
Washington naively remarked that it took a wagon-load of 
money to buy a wagon-load of provisions. "In Boston, corn 
sold for $150 a bushel, butter for $12 a pound, tea $90, sugar 
$10, beef $8, coffee $12, and a barrel of flour for $1,575. 
Samuel Adams paid $2,000 for a hat and suit of clothes." 

"Continental currency" became a joke in the colonies, 
A barber in Philadelphia papered his shop with it, and a wag 
in that city caught a stray dog, and, bedaubing him with 
tar, stuck bills of various denominations all over him, and 
paraded him in the streets. Before the close of 1780 the 
currency had ceased to circulate, public credit was gone, and 
trade was at a standstill — and yet the American army had 
been paid in just such money. The country was in need of 
a financier to save it from bankruptcy. 

273. Robert Morris, Superintendent of Finance. — "That 
the government had in any way been able to finish the Avar, 
after the downfall of its paper currency, in 1780, was due to 
the gigantic efforts of one great man — Robert Morris of 
Pennsylvania." Made superintendent of finance in 1781, 
Morris at once set about to organize the finances on a sound 
basis. Recognizing the peril the country was in, he grandly 
arose to the occasion, using his own private means to keep 
the army supplied and the country from bankruptcy. 

He had long served on the congressional committee, which 
had to provide for the raising of money. It was he who had 
raised money for "Washington's Trenton campaign and who 
had contributed largely from his own private funds to relieve 
the sufferings of the army at Valley Forge. Taking advan- 
tage of his own unlimited credit, he now procured the 
establishment of the Bank of North America (1781), 
through which loans might be negotiated; and successfully 



22U 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



carried the war forward from the campaign beginning at the 
Cowpeus to the final straggle at Yorktown. 

France had made numerous loans to the colonies, and 
in 1781 she made another loan. Morris, a few months 
later, secured, through the efforts of John Adams, minister 
to Holland, a loan from that country. Both these loans 
came into the country in the form of specie, which enabled 
the superintendent of finance to conduct the financial affairs 
of the government in terms of specie, and to keep paper — 
money out of circulation. Wf' 

By his sound business methods he was able to reduce the 
exj^enses of the army, and when the war closed he reduced 
the expenditures of the government to the very lowest scale. 
In spite of opposition in congress, he introduced a system of 
taxation Avhich bore fruit. Under him, American credit 
rapidly rose both at home and abroad. As the financier of 
the Revolution, he rendered a service to his country which 
cannot be estimated — without which neither Greene's cam- 
paign in the south, nor Washington's campaign against 
Yorktown, nor the successful disbanding of the army could 
have been accomplished. He recognized the weakness of 
the government under the Articles of Confederation, and, 
seeing that congress could not carry out the reforms which 
he contemplated, he resigned his position at the close of the 
year 1784. 




KIRST MONEY COINED BY THE UNITED STATES 








JOHN MARSHALL 
JAMES MAniSON 



DAIVIKL W'KIJSTEK 
ALEXANDER HAMILTON 



Makers a:nd Interpreters of the Constitution 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 

274. Steps in the Development of the Constitution. — 

Numerous steps have marked the develoj^ment of the consti- 
tution and the movement toward union. 

The United Colonies of New England in 1643; Franklin's 
Plan of Union proposed at Albany in 1754; the Stamp Act 
Congress in 1765; the First Continental Congress in 1774; 
the Second Continental Congress in 1775; the Declaration 
of Independence in 1776; the adoption of new state consti- 
tutions by the several states from 1776 to 1780; the Articles 
of Confederation in 1781 ; the Annapolis Trade Convention 
in 1786- xnd finally the Constitutional Convention in 1787 — 
are all important steps in the growth of the constitution. 

275. Government During the Revolution. — The First Con- 
tinental Congress was not a governing body. It was called 
together to demand of the king and parliament a redress of 
grievances. The Second met primarily, to consider the 
answer of the king to this address. By force of circum- 
stances, however, the Second Continental Congress immedi- 
ately assumed the power of a governing body, and continued 
as such from May 10, 1775, until March 2, 1789. Two days 
later the First National Congress convened in Federal Hall, 
New York City, which since 1785 had been the seat of govern- 
ment. 

276. The States Adopt Nev7 Constitutions. — During the 
progress of the Revolution all the states declared their 
independence of King George, and, on the advice of Con- 
gress, all, excepting Rhode Island and Connecticut (their 
liberal charters sufficing), adopted new constitutions. 

221 



222 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

The machinery of government corresponded to that of the 
colonial days — providing for a governor, a legislature of two 
houses, judges, and other officers. Both a religious and a 
property test were required of voters in nearly all the colo- 
nies, and Sunday laws were maintained. While Massachu- 
setts provided for laws against theaters and extravagance in 
dress, still to her belongs the glory of being the first of the 
thirteen original states to abolish slavery. Vermont three 
years before (1777) had adopted a constitution prohibiting 
slavery, but when she applied to Congress for admission as a 
state, Congress refused her. She was the first state to be 
admitted after the adoption of the constitution. 

These new state constitutions carried the states safely 
through the prolonged struggle of the Eevolution, and 
proved a source of strength to the central governing body — 
the Second Continental Congress. 

277. Articles of Confederation — 1781. — In the first burst 
of enthusiasm but few questioned the authority of Congress, 
and but little contention among the colonies resulted. But 
as time passed, great dissensions arose. The necessity was 
thus felt for a national constitution, fixing the powers of the 
general government. Accordingly, in Xovember of 1777, 
Congress submitted to the states for their ratification the 
*'Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union" — the same 
to become binding only when approved by the unanimous 
vote of the thirteen states. 

The government instituted under the Articles of Con- 
federation, while not satisfactory, was probably the best that 
could have obtained ratification at that time. As it was, 
great difficulty was experienced in securing the adoption 
of the Articles — the consent of Maryland not having been 
obtained until March 1, 1781. The vote of Maryland made 
the adoption unanimous, and the Articles went into opera- 
tion as the first constitution of the new republic. 

278. Weakness of the Articles. — The Articles provided for 
a congress of the United States composed of delegates from 



THE GROWTH OF THE COXSTITUTIOi^" 223 

each state, appointed by the state, paid by the state, and 
entirely under the state's control. These delegates were 
chosen annually. No state could have less than two nor 
more than seven delegates. Whatever the number of dele- 
gates, each state could have but one vote, and the vote of 
nine of the states was necessary for the passage of important 
laws. Congress had power, though limited, over postal regu- 
lations, Indian affairs, coin, weights and measures, war and 
peace. 

The chief defects in the Articles lay in the facts that 

(1) Congress could not collect a revenue. It could not 
levy taxes. It could deal with the states, but not with the 
people. It could request, but could not compel a state to 
furnish money for the support of the general government. 
It was thus at the mercy of the states, which, in more than 
one instance, refused its request. Thus, while Congress had 
power to raise armies, it did not have power to raise money 
with which to pay the armies. While it could incur debts, 
it had no power to raise money to cancel them. 

(2) Congress had no power to enforce its own laws. It 
could make treaties, but could not prevent the violation of 
treaty obligations by the states. Thus the general govern- 
ment could neither preserve order at home nor command 
respect abroad. Five of the states refused to comply with 
the provision of the treaty of 1783 providing for the pay- 
ment of private debts. 

(3) Congress had no power to regulate commerce between 
the states. 

Foreign commerce was practically destroyed at the close of 
the war, when Great Britain laid heavy tariffs on all Ameri- 
can exports and later forbade American ships to trade with 
the British West Indies — a trade which had always been a 
source of wealth to the American colonies. Congress could 
not retaliate because the states would not unite in a uniform 
law. Thus each state was soon engaged in an attempt to 
build itself up at the expense of other states by placing high 



2:24 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

tariffs on productions both from foreign countries and from 
sister states. Instead of retaliating against Great Britain, 
the states retaliated against each other. One port would 
often bid against anotlier for foreign goods, — admitting the 
goods duty free, — even after agreeing not to do so. Thus 
bad faith was practiced, and strife and bitterness followed. 
The condition of trade and the disturbed state of business 
in every state of the union perhaps did more than all else 
toward leading the whole country to see the immediate 
necessity for a stronger government than the Articles 
afforded. 

(4) The Articles could not be amended, save by a vote of 
all the states. All efforts to amend the Articles failed, — a 
unanimous vote of the thirteen states could not be secured. 

(5) The fact that each state could have but one vote was 
felt to be unjust in the extreme. Thus Massachusetts, with 
its 370,000, and Virginia, with its more than a half million 
population, had no more voice than Georgia and Rhode 
Island and Delaware, each with a population of less than 
70,000. 

279. State Pride. — At best, the "union," under the 
Articles of Confederation, was but a confederation of sepa- 
rate states. The idea of the government of the United 
States being a government "of the people, by the people, and 
for the people" of "one common country," had not yet laid 
hold upon the public mind. There was much local pride; 
and much jealousy between the states. To be a citizen of 
any state was a prouder distinction than to be a citizen of 
the republic. It was the day in which "my state" was much 
spoken of, and "our country" but little. 

280. Shays' s Eebellion. — Even states which attempted to 
carry out their own measures, or the requests of the national 
government, were interfered with by their own citizens. A 
serious uprising took place in Massachusetts at the close of 
the year 1786, in which one thousand armed men under 
Daniel Shays attempted to interfere with the authority of 



THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 225 

the state government. This rebellion had the sympathy of 
many citizens of Massachusetts as well as of adjoining states. 
It was promptly suppressed by the firm action of the gov- 
ernor. 

This disturbance in staid old Massachusetts excited com- 
ment in all the colonies. Shays and his followers had been 
opposing the collection of taxes, and the forced payment of 
private debts; and insisting on the issuing of paper money 
by the state. 

281. Movement toward a Stronger Government. — While 
the Articles were defective, still they served to keep before 
the public mind the idea of a union of the states and of the 
necessity of a national authority. Though the Articles had 
not gone into operation until March 1, 1781, nevertheless the 
principles embodied in them had been followed from the 
first by the Second Continental Congress. While the struggle 
against the common foe was in progress, patriotism made 
up for the defects of the Articles; but when that support was 
removed, each succeeding year but made more evident their 
total inadequacy to meet the object for which they had been 
brought into existence. Wise men in every section saw the 
necessity of a radical change in the method of government. 
Just how this change should be accomplished, was the ques- 
tion which confronted all. Suggestions were made by Alex- 
ander Hamilton of New York ; by leaders in Massachusetts, 
and in Pennsylvania. Finally in the legislatures of Connec- 
ticut, Maryland, and Virginia resolutions were adopted invit- 
ing all the states to send delegates to meet at Annapolis, 
Maryland, for the purpose of considering the state of Amer- 
ican trade and all questions relating thereto. 

282. The Annapolis Trade Convention— 1786.— But five 
states, however,— New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Delaware, and Virginia, — sent delegates. These met on 
September 11, 1786. A majority of the states not being 
represented, these delegates deferred action, and at the same 
time proposed another convention. Congress, in the follow- 



220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ing February, indorsed this proposal by asking that a con- 
vention meet in Philadelphia in May of 1787 for the "sole 
purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." 

283. The Northwest Territory. — In the meantime Congress 
was enacting an important piece of legislation — the organiza- 
tion of the Northwest Territory under the ordinance of 1787. 
The reason Maryland had refused to ratify the Articles of 
Confederation until 1781 (four years after Congress had 
passed them) was due to the fact that Virginia, New York, 
Massachusetts, and Connecticut had at first refused to relin- 
quish their claim to the territory lying north of the Ohio 
River, and extending from the western limits of New York 
and Pennsylvania to the Mississippi River — the whole known 
as the Northwest Territory, These states based their claim 
on the wording of their charters — that of Virginia reading 
"from the west by the northwest"; that of the others, 
"from sea to sea." 

Maryland and the smaller states, whose charters gave them 
no claim to the western territory, feared that under the 
Articles the larger states, with their vast wealth of public 
land, would take to themselves greater powers; and thus the 
smaller would receive less of the benefits of the union. In 
the contention Maryland won — the four states concerned 
agreeing to cede all their public land to the general govern- 
ment. By 17SG this agreement had been complied with. 

284. The Ordinance of 1787. — This land grant became 
known as the "public domain," and was organized as a 
territory by Congress under the "Ordinance of 1787." This 
ordinance separated the territory into three divisions. When 
the inhabitants in any one of these divisions should reach 60,- 
000, it was to be admitted as a new state. No land was to be 
taken until the government had purchased it from the 
Indians and had announced it to be open to settlement. 

A governor was to be appointed until such time as the 
inhabitants could set up a government of their own — the 
same to be republican in form. No property or religious 



THE GROWTH OF TH K CONSTITUTION 227 

qualification was required of voters. A delegate could be 
sent to Congress, who could debate on all questions, but not 
vote. 

Education was liberally provided for by granting the 
proceeds from the sales of certain sections of the public 
lands, to the public school fund. 

Slavery was forever prohibited from the territory or from 
any state which should be organized out of any portion 
thereof. 

This ordinance became the model upon which all the ter- 
ritories of the United States have been organized. As a 
piece of wise legislation, it was far-reaching in its effect on 
the future history of the country. 

285. The Constitutional Convention — 1787. — With the 
exception of Ehode Island and New Hampshire, all the states 
promptly responded to the suggestion of Congress and the 
Annapolis Trade Convention. The latter part of May saw 
the delegates of eleven states in session at Philadelphia, with 
George Washington as president and William Jackson as sec- 
retary, of the convention. 

Edmund Randolph, governor of Virginia, made the open- 
ing address, in which he suggested that a national govern- 
ment ought to be established consisting of a legislative, an 
executive, and a judicial department. 

This was a wide departure from the government under 
the Articles, which provided only for a legislative depart- 
ment — the Congress. The convention had not proceeded 
far, when it saw that an attempt to revise the Articles of 
Confederation was useless. The Articles were therefore 
thrown aside, and the convention proceeded to the formation 
of an entirely new constitution. The sessions of the con- 
vention, which consumed a period of nearly four months, 
were behind closed doors. 

286. The Men Who Composed the Convention. — Among its 
delegates were some of the ablest men in the country. Some 
had been members of both the First and the Second Conti- 



228 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

nental Congress, and had signed the Declaration of Independ- 
ence. From Connecticut came Roger Sherman; from Mass- 
achusetts, Rufus King; from New York, Alexander Ham- 
ilton; from Pennsylvania, the venerable Franklin and Robert 
Morris; from South Carolina, John Rutledge and the two 
Pinckneys; from Delaware, John Dickinson; while from 
Virginia came Washington and Edmund Randolph and 
James Madison. 

287. The Constitution, the Result of Compromise. — The 
constitution as it stands to-day does not set forth the ideas 
of government as held by any one member of the convention ; 
each article, each section, and each clause was passed only 
after the most severe scrutiny. On certain questions it 
seemed almost impossible for the convention to agree. 
"Compromise" is written in every line. 

288. The Three Great Compromises. — It was agreed that 
there should be two houses of Congress. The larger states 
wished the number of members in each house to be based on 
the population of the several states. The smaller states 
insisted upon some plan of equal representation. It was 
conceded to the smaller states that the Senate should be com- 
posed of two senators from eacli state; and to the larger, 
that the number of members in the House of Represent- 
atives should be based on population. 

The second compromise arose over the question as to 
whether slaves should be counted in apportioning represent- 
atives to each state. The northern and middle states, with 
less than 60,000 slaves, opposed counting the slaves unless 
they were also counted when direct taxes were levied; some 
of the states in the south, where there was a population of 
more than 000,000 slaves, insisted upon counting all in 
determining representation, but not for taxation. The com- 
promise provided that three-fifths of the slaves should be 
counted, both in apportioning representatives and in levying 
direct taxes. 

The third compromise was on the question of the regula- 



THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION" 229 

tion of commerce, but indirectly involved the question of 
slavery. The north wished Congress to have power over 
commerce. The south objected ; at the same time some of 
the southerners wished that the slave trade should be per- 
mitted, to which the north objected. The compromise pro- 
vided that Congress should have control of commerce, and 
that the importation of slaves should not be prohibited prior 
to the year 1808. 

289. The Constitution before the People for Adoption. — 
When the convention adjourned September 17, 1787, it sub- 
mitted the new constitution to Congress, which in turn sub- 
mitted it to the state legislatures, and these submitted 
it to the people of the several states for their ratifica- 
tion. It was a season of peril to the young republic. 
Should the constitution not receive the votes of nine of the 
thirteen states, all the labor of the convention would be 
for naught. So bitter had been the contest in the conven- 
tion that a number of the delegates had gone home dissatis- 
fied with the result. These as a rule threw their influence 
against its ratification. For various reasons, some of the 
strongest men in the colonies were opposed to its adoption, 
of whom Samuel Adams of Massachusetts and Patrick Henry 
of Virginia were notable examples. But happily, the 
counsel of such men as Washington and Madison and Frank- 
lin and Hamilton prevailed. Delaware was the first to 
ratify, and on June 9, 1788, New Hampshire gave it its 
votes as the nintli state. Virginia soon followed, and on the 
26th of July New York g^\e its assent, though after a pro- 
longed struggle. Rhode Island and North Carolina failed to 
ratify until after the inauguration of Washington. 

290. "The Federalist." — Wliile the constitution was before 
the people of New York, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay 
greatly aided in its adoption by issuing a series of essays 
explaining the provisions of the constitution. These were 
published in a newspaper over the common signature of 
"Publius." They were afterwards collected and published 



230 HISTORY OP THE U^'ITED STATES 

in a volume styled ''The Federalist." So fclearly were the 
principles of federal government discussed that "The Fed- 
eralist" immediately took rank as a classic in the ]3olitical lit- 
erature of the republic. 

291. The First Two Political Parties — Federalists and 
Anti-Federalists. — When the constitution was before the 
people for ratification, those in favor of its adoption were 
known as Federalists and those who opposed were known as 
Anti-Federalists. 

While the Federalist party, with Washington as President, 
organized the government under the new constitution, still 
during the first administration of Washington, party lines 
were not closely drawn. However, a division soon occurred, 
with Hamilton as leader of the Federalist party and Jefi'er- 
son as the leader of the Democratic-Eepublican party — that 
name taking the place of Anti-Federalist. 

292. Amendments to the Constitution. — At the time of the 
ratification many Anti-Federalists had voted for the consti- 
tution on the strength of a promise from the leading Federal- 
ists that they would vote for certain amendments to the 
constitution after the government should be instituted. A 
few of the states had cast their votes for ratification with 
this express understanding. 

Within two years after the inauguration of Washington the 
first ten amendments to the constitution were adopted 
(1791). These are sometimes called "The Bill of Eights." 

The Eleventh Amendment was added in 1798; the 
Twelfth, in 1804; the Thirteenth, in 1865; the Fourteenth, 
in 1868; and the Fifteenth, in 1870. 

The text of the constitution, as amended, follows: 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Preamble 
We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranqviillity, 
provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, 



THE GROWTH OF THE C0^'STITUT10N 231 

and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do 
ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of 
America. 

ARTICLE I.— Legislative Department 

SECTION I. — All legislative powers herein granted shall be 
vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a 
Senate and House of Representatives. 

SECTION II.— Clause 1. The House of Representatives shall 
be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of 
the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch 
of the State Legislature. 

Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not 
have attained to the age of twenty -five years, and been seven years 
a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be appor- 
tioned among the several States which may be included within this 
Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be 
determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, includ- 
ing those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians 
not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.^ The actual enumera- 
tion shall be made within three j^ears after the first meeting of the 
Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term 
of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative; and 
until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire 
shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode 
Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New 
York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one ; 
Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Caro- 
lina, five; and Georgia, three. ^ 

Clause 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from 
any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of elec- 
tion to fill such vacancies. 

Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their 

1 Meaning slaves. (Through the influence of Edmund Randolph, the word 
slave does not appear in the original articles of the Constitution.) 

2 Under the census of 1900 one representative is apportioned to every 193,291 
persons. 



232 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of im 
peachment. 

SECTION III.— Clause 1. The Senate of the United States 
shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the 
Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one 
vote. 

Clause 3. Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse- 
quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may 
be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class 
shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second 
class at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class at 
the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen 
every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other- 
wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the execu- 
tive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next 
meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have 
attained to the age of thirty j'ears, and been nine years a citizen of 
the United States, and vvlio shall not, when elected, be an inhabi- 
tant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

Clause 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be 
president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be 
equally divided. 

Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also 
a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or 
when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 

Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all 
impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on 
oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is 
tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside: and no person shall be con- 
victed without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members 
present. 

Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend 
further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and 
enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States: 
but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to 
indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

SECTION IV.— Clause 1. The times, places and manner of 
holding elections for senators and representatives shall be pre- 
scribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress 
may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as 
to the places of choosing senators. 

Clause 3. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every 



THE GROWTH OE THE CONSTITUTION^ 233 

year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, 
unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 

SECTION v.— Clause 1. Each House shall be the judge of the 
elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a 
majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a 
smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be author- 
ized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, 
and under such penalties as each House may provide. 

Clause 2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceed- 
ings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the con- 
currence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

Clause 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, 
and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as 
may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of 
the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of 
one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

Clause 4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, 
without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, 
nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be 
sitting. 

SECTION VI.— Clause 1. The senators and representatives 
shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by 
law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall 
in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be 
privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of 
their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the 
same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not 
be questioned in any other place. 

Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time 
for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the 
authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or 
the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such 
time ; and no person holding any office under the United States, 
shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. 
SECTION VII.— Clause 1. All bills for raising revenue shall 
originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may pro- 
pose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 

Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Rep- 
resentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be pre- 
sented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall 
sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that 
House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objec- 
tions at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If 



234 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to 
pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the 
other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But 
in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by 
3'eas and nay, sand the names of the persons voting for and against 
the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. 
If any bill shall not 'be returned by the President within ten days 
(Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the 
same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which 
case it shall not be a law. 

Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concur- 
rence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary 
(except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the 
President of the United States; and before the same shall take 
effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall 
be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Represent- 
atives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case 
of a bill. 

SECTION VIII.— Clause 1. The Congress shall have power to 
lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts 
and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the 
United States ; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform 
throughout the United States ; 

Clause 2. To borrow mone}^ on the credit of the United States; 

Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and 
among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

Clause 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and 
uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United 
States ; 

Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of 
foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

Clause 6. To provide for the punisliment of counterfeiting the 
securities and current coin of the United States; 

Clause 7. To establish postoffices and post-roads ; 

Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by 
securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive 
right to their respective writings and discoveries; 

Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme 
Court ; 

Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies com- 
mitted on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations; 



THE GROWTH OF THE CO^STITUTIOJs^ 235 

Clause 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, 
and make rules concerning caj^tures on land and water ; 

Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy ; 

Clause 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of 
the land and naval forces; 

Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute 
the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; 

Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining 
the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be em- 
ployed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States 
respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of 
training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Con- 
gi-ess ; 

Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatso- 
ever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by 
cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become 
the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like 
authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legis- 
lature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of 
forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; — 
And 

Clause 18. To make all laws which sliall be necessary and 
proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all 
other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the 
United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX.— Clause 1. The migration or importation of such 
persons^ as any of the States now existing shall think proper to 
admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one 
thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be im- 
posed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not 
be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the pub- 
lic safety may require it. 

Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be 



Clause 4. No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless 
in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to 
be taken. 

Clause 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported 
from any State. 

'Meaning slaves. 



236 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Clause 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of 
commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of an- 
other ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to 
enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in 
consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular state- 
ment and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public 
money shall be published from time to time. 

Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United 
States : and no person holding any office of profit or trust under 
them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any 
present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any 
king, prince, or foreign State. 

SECTION X.— Clause 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, 
alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; 
coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and sil- 
ver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, 
ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or 
grant any title of nobility. 

Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, 
lay any impost, or duties on imports or exports, except what may be 
absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net 
produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or 
exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; 
and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the 
Congress. 

Clause 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay 
any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, 
enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a 
foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such 
imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II.— Executive Department 

SECTION I.— Clause 1. The executive power shall be vested in 
a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his 
office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice- 
President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows: 

Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the 
Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to tlie 
whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may 
be entitled in the Congress: but no senator or representative, or 
person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, 
shall be appointed an elector. 



THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 237 

Clause 3.J 

Clause 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing 
the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; 
which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

Clause 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen 
of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitu- 
tion, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any 
person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the 
age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within 
the United States. 

Clause 6, In case of the removal of the President from office, 
or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers 
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice- 
President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of 
removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and 
Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, 
and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be re- 
moved, or a President shall be elected. 

Clause 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his 
services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor 
diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, 
and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument 
from the United States, or any of them. 

Clause 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall 
take the following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or 
affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the 
United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect 
and defend the Constitution of the United States." 

SECTION II.— Clause 1. The President shall be commander- 
in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the 
militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of 
the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the prin- 
cipal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject 
relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have 
power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the 
United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and 
consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the 
senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with 
the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, 
other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, 
and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are 

'See Amendment XII, which has superseded this clause. 



HISTORY OF THE U.VITED STATES 

not herein otherwise "provided for, and which shall be established 
by law : but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such 
inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the 
courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies 
that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com- 
missions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

SECTION III. — He shall from time to time give to the Congress 
information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their con- 
sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expe- 
dient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or 
either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with 
respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such 
time as he shall^think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and 
other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faith- 
fully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United 
States. 

SECTION IV.— The President, Vice-President and all civil offi- 
cers of the United States, shall be removed from office on 'impeach- 
ment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes 
and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III.— Judicial Department 

SECTION I. —The judicial power of the United States shall be 
vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Con- 
gress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, 
both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices dur- 
ing good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their serv- 
ices, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their 
continuance in office. 

SECTION II.— Clause 1.^ The judicial power shall extend to all 
cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws 
of the United j^States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, 
under their authority; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other 
public ministers and consuls;— to all cases of admiralty and 
maritime jurisdiction; — to controversies to which the United States 
shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States; — 
between a State and citizens of another State; — between citizens of 
different States; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands 
under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
iSee Amendment XI for modification of this clause. 



• THE (IKOVVTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 239 

Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public minis- 
ters and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the 
Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other 
cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate 
jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and 
under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 

Clause 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeach- 
ment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State 
where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not 
committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or 
places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

SECTION III.— Clause 1. Treason against the United States 
shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to 
their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be 
convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to 
the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the pun- 
ishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corrup- 
tion of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person 
attainted. 

ARTICLE IV.— General Provisions 

SECTION I.— Full faith and credit shall be given in each State 
to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other 
State; and the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner 
in which such acts, records, and ijroceedings shall be proved, and 
the effect thereof. 

SECTION II.— Clause 1. The citizens of each State shall be 
entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several 
States. 

Clause 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, 
or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another 
State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from 
which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having 
jurisdiction of the crime. 

Clause 3.^ No j^erson held to service or labor in one State, under 
the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any 
law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, 
but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such serv- 
ice or labor may be due. 

SECTION III.— Clause 1. New States may be admitted by the 
Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or 
'This clause refers to slaves as well as to apprentices. 



240 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be 
formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, 
without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as 
well as of the Congress. 

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and 
make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or 
other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this 
Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
United States, or of any particular State. 

SECTION IV. The United States shall guarantee to every State 
in this Union a republican form of Government, and shall protect 
each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legis- 
lature, or of the executive (when the Legislature can not be con- 
vened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE v.— Power of Amendment 
The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, 
shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either 
case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con- 
stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the 
several States, or by conventions in three- fourths thereof, as the one 
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; 
provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year 
one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner aifect 
the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; 
and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal 
suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI.— Miscellaneous Provisions 
Clause 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, 
before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against 
the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confedera- 
tion. 

Clause 3. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States 
which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, 
or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, 
shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State 
shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any 
State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, 
and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive 
and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several 



THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION" 241 

States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Consti- 
tution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification 
to any office or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. — Ratification of th^ Constitution 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be suffi- 
cient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States 
so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the 
States present the seventeenth day of September in the 
year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty- 
seven, and of the independence of the United States of 
America the twelfth. 
In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our 
names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, 

President, and Deputy from Virginia. 
Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, 

Secretary. 
[In the original draft of the Constitution there here follow the 
signatures of the delegates by States. There were fifty-five dele- 
gates in the Convention, of which only thirty-nine signed the docu- 
ment. Rhode Island was not represented.] 

AMENDMENTS 

TO THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, RATIFIED ACCORD- 
ING TO THE PROVISIONS OF THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE FORE- 
GOING CONSTITUTION. 

ARTICLE I. ^ — Congress shall make no law respecting an estab- 
lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or 
abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of 
the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government 
for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE 11. — A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the 
security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear 
arms, shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered 
in anj^ house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, 
but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their per- 
sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and 
seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but 
upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and par- 

lAinendmeuts I to X took effect December 15, 1791. 



24:'Z HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ticularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or 
things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or 
otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment 
of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, 
or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public 
danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be 
twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any 
criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of 
life, liberty, or propertj^ without due process of law; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall 
enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury 
of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been com- 
mitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained by 
law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; 
to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compul- 
sory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the 
assistance of counsel for his defence. 

ARTICLE VII. — In suits at common law, where the value in 
controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury 
shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise 
re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to 
the rules of the common law. 

ARTICLE VIII. — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excess- 
ive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution of certain 
rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained 
by the people. 

ARTICLE X. — The powers not delegated to the United States 
by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved 
to the States respectively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI.'— The judicial power of the United States shall 
not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com- 
menced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens 
of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 

ARTICLE XII.- — The electors shall meet in their respective 
States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of 
whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with 
themselves ; they sliall name in their ballots the person voted for as 
President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as V ice-Presi- 

JTook effect January 8, 1798. 
2 Took effect September 25, 1804. 



THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTIOX 243 

dent ; and tliey shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as 
President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the 
number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, 
and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
States, directed to the president of the Senate ; — the president of 
the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted; — the person having tlie greatest number of votes for Presi- 
dent, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the 
House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the 
President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken 
by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a 
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from 
tsvo-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be 
necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall 
not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve 
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the 
Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death 
or other constitutional disability of the President. The person hav- 
ing the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the 
Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number 
of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from 
the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the 
Vice-President : a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole 
number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitu- 
tionally ineligible to the ofifice of President shall be eligible to that 
of Vice-President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII. 1— Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary 
servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the person 
shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, 
or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV. 2— Section 1. All persons born or naturalized 
in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are 
citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. 
No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the 
privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall 
1 Took effect December 18, 1865. a Took effect July 28, 1868. " 



244 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction 
the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the sev- 
eral States according to their respective numbers, counting the 
whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. 
But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors 
for President and Vice-President of the United States, representa- 
tives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the 
members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male 
inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and 
citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for 
participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation 
therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of 
such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in 
Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any 
office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any 
State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Con- 
gress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State 
Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to 
support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged 
in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or com- 
fort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two- 
thirds of each House, remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, 
shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any 
State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of 
insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim 
for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obli- 
gations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- 
priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV. 1— Section 1. The rights of citizens of the 
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United 
States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous con- 
dition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 

1 Took effect March 30, 1870. 



CHAPTER IX 
FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 

1789—1829 

293. The New Government Established— 1789.— On the 

recommendation of the Continental Congress, all the ratify- 
ing states except New York, acting in accordance with the 
provisions of the constitution, proceeded to elect presidential 
electors, — and all elected senators and representatives to 
congress. 

The presidential electors, assembling at their respective 
state capitals in February, 1789, performed the work required 
of them, and sent their reports to the seat of government at 
New York — that city having been designated by the Second 
Continental Congress as the place at which the government 
should be instituted on the 4th of the coming March. 

In New York, the 4th of March was ushered in by the 
firing of cannon and the ringing of bells. These demonstra- 
tions were repeated at noon and sunset, but on account of 
the bad habits of delay that had crept into all affairs relating 
to public business — and due, also, to the lack of public con- 
veyances and the inconvenience of travel at that time — but 
eight senators and thirteen representatives had arrived at the 
hour appointed. The 30th of March saw but a bare quorum 
of the members of the lower house present, when that body pro- 
ceeded to organize by electing a speaker and other officers. 
One week later (April 6), a sufficient number of senators hav- 
ing arrived, the senate organized by electing a chairman "for 
the sole purpose of opening and counting the votes for presi- 
dent of the United States." The house thereupon adjourned 
to the senate chamber in Federal Hall, where, in the pres- 

245 



246 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



ence of both bodies, the votes were opened and read aloud 
by the chairman of the senate and counted by tellers 
appointed from each house. This work finished, the repre- 
sentatives withdrew to their own chamber, when the presid- 
ing officer of each body officially announced the result, 
which had been known throughout the country since the 
month of February. 

George Washington had received sixty-nine electoral votes, 
and was declared unanimously elected president of the 
United States. John Adams — just returned from England 

as minister to that coun- 
^ -~"~^~ %:^^^^^^~ Z try — was declared elected 

vice-president. Messen- 
gers were at once sent to 
Mount Vernon and to 
Massachusetts, to notify 
the newly-elected officers, 
and to present them with 
their certificates of elec- 
tion. John Adams soon 
arrived in New York and 
assumed his duties as the 
presiding officer of the 
senate. 

294. Washington In- 
augurated April 30, 1789. 
— George Washington ar- 
FKDERALHALL rlvcd a fcw days later, 

and on April 30 was accompanied by the entire senate and 
house of representatives to the balcony of old Federal Hall, 
where the chancellor for New York, Robert R. Livingston, 
stood awaiting him, to administer the oath of office. A 
vast company of people filled the streets in every direction. 
The scene was imposing and solemn. As Chancellor Liv- 
ingston concluded, he exclaimed: "Long live George Wash- 
ington, president of the United States," to which the 




FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON 247 

people responded in long-continued shouting. Thus was 
the new government established. 

Washington's admixistration 

FEDERALIST: i:s9-1797. 

295. The First President. — No wiser choice could have been 
made for president. Washington held the confidence and 
esteem of his fellow-citizens. His trip from Mount Vernon 
to New York was one continual series of ovations, in which 
men, women, and children vied with each other to do the 
new president honor. At Philadelphia, his reception 
was imposing; at Trenton, in view of old memories, it was 
solemnly patriotic. When he crossed the bridge at Prince- 
ton, over which he had retreated when pursued by Corn- 
wallis, he passed under a triumphal arch, and his roadway 
was strewn with flowers. His reception at New York was a 
grand and imposing spectacle, in which the whole city joined. 
The love and the devotion of the people for AVashington was 
deep and sincere. As president of the United States, his 
very name gave to the new republic a little larger importance 
in the eyes of the civilized world than it could otherwise 
have obtained. 

296. The President's Cabinet. — Congress having already 
authorized the president to select a body of advisers, this 
Washington did at once. These advisers constituted the 
"president's cabinet," which consisted of but four depart- 
ments — the departments of state, of the treasury, of war, 
and of the attorney-generalship. 

Since that day four other departments have been added — 
the department of the navy, created in 1798; the depart- 
ment of the interior, in 1849; and that of agriculture, in 
1889. The postmaster-general became a member of the 
cabinet after 1829. 

• In the first cabinet, Jefferson was secretary of state; 
Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury; General 
Henry Knox, secretary of war; and Edmund Randolph, 



248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

attorney-general. All were men of distinguished ability. 
Jefferson, as Franklin's successor to the court of France, had 
devoted most of his time to the settlement of disputes with 
foreign governments. Hamilton, though but thirty-two 
years of age, had already established a reputation for great 
ability, especially in the field of finance. Knox had been an 
officer of distinction in the Eevolution, and had been at the 
head of military affairs since the close of the war. Edmund 
Kandolph was a lawyer of fine ability ; had been governor of 
Virginia ; attorney-general of that state ; and a delegate in 
the Continental Congress, and the Constitutional Conven- 
tion. 

297. The Condition of the Government Finances in 1789. — 
The first serious question which confronted the new govern- 
ment was that of its finances. At the time of the inaugura- 
tion, there was hardly a dollar in the treasury with which to 
meet even the running expenses of the new republic; and 
yet, the government owed to foreign nations, in round num- 
bers, the sum of $13,000,000; to its own private citizens, 
$42,000,000. In addition to this, the several states had con- 
tracted Revolutionary debts of their own, amounting in all 
to $25,000,000. 

298. Hamilton's Financial Policy. — It now devolved upon 
Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, to reform 
the finances of the country. On his advice, congress 
agreed : 

(1) To pay the foreign debt and all interest due thereon. 

(2) To pay all debts due from the government to its 
private citizens. 

(3) To assume all debts contracted by the separate states 
during th« Revolution. 

This assumption of all debts involved but the first part of 
Hamilton's plan. There still remained the necessity of 
devising a scheme of revenue sufficient to pay these debts, 
and to meet the running expenses of the government. 

299. The Tariff of 1789: The Excise Tax— 1790: Bank of 



FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 249 

the United States— 1791: The United States Mint— 1792.— 

Congress now passed a tariff bill, laying a tax on all imports. 
All custom houses, which had heretofore been under control 
of the states, now passed to the national government, which 
located collectors at every port of entry in the United 
States. The purpose of this tariff legislation was twofold — 
to raise a revenue, and to protect home manufactures. 

An excise law was passed, which levied a tax on every gal- 
lon of Iquor distilled in the United States, and also on all 
liquor imported into the United States. 

The Bank of the United States, with a capital of $10,000,- 
000, was chartered for twenty years. The government held 
one-fifth of the stock, and agreed to receive the bills of the 
bank in payment of all claims due the United States. The 
bank was of great service in establishing the national 
credit. 

Congress, having power to coin money, established at 
Pliiladelphia the United States Mint, which was soon turn- 
ing out copper coin, silver dollars, and gold eagles. Foreign 
coins, which, on account of their varying values, had always 
been annoying in business transactions, were now driven out 
of circulation. 

All these measures were adopted by congress on the advice 
of Hamilton. To him belongs the credit of establishing the 
finances of the country on a firm basis. Of him, in later 
years, Daniel Webster said: "He smote the rock of onr 
national resources, and abundant streams of revenue poured 
forth ; he touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it 
sprang upon its feet." 

300. The Judiciary Established— 1789.— The executive and 
legislative departments being now established, it devolved 
upon congress to organize the judicial department. 
Accordingly, in 1789, congress established a supreme 
court, to consist of one chief justice and five associate 
justices. As inferior courts, it created both the circuit and 
the district courts. So wisely was this act drawn up that 



250 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the judiciary remained practically unchanged (except as to 
the number of judges and their division of labor) until the 
year 1891, when the circuit court of appeals was created 
as an additional court. 

Washington appointed John Jay first chief justice of the 
United States. 

The honor of having assisted Hamilton in reforming the 
finances belongs to the house; that of having organized the 
judiciary belongs to the senate. 

301. The First National Congress: The Term of a Con- 
gress. — Thus, through the wise legislation of the First 
National Congress, had all the machinery of the new gov- 
ernment been set in motion. No greater task has devolved 
upon any congress of the United States, nor has any legisla- 
tion been more wisely or more satisfactorily accomplished. 

A congress is known by its number, and is in existence 
two years (from March 4 to March 4) — measured by the 
length of the term of a member of the lower house. While 
the first congress held three sessions, the majority of con- 
gresses have usually held but two sessions — the first being 
designated the long, and the second the short, session. 
Each new congress begins its first session in an odd year. 
Thus, the First National Congress began its life in the odd 
year, 1789; the Fifty-seventh Congress held its first session 
in the odd year, 1901. 

302. The National Capital. — After the organization of the 
government, a movement was set on foot for the building of 
a national capital. Great rivalry at once sprang up between 
the states. The southerners wanted the capital in their 
section. The northerners in general wished to place it in 
one of the middle states. Its final location was determined 
by a compromise, which provided that Philadelphia should 
be the capital of the republic from 1790 to 1800, and after 
that, the seat of government should be located at some point 
on the Potomac River, the same to be selected by the presi- 
dent. In 1793 Washington selected the present site of the 



FROM AVASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON 251 

city of Washington, which was named in his honor and 
became the capital of the United States in the year 1800. 

303. Political Parties: Federalist and Democratic-Repub- 
lican. — Some of the ablest members in congress bitterly 
ojDposed certain of Hamilton's reform measures. Hamilton 
was a pronounced Federalist, and this name, which at first 
had been applied to those who favored the ratification of the 
constitution, was now applied to Hamilton's supporters. 
As a political jjarty, the Federalists favored a strong central 
government and believed in establishing the Union as firmly 
as possible. They became champions of the "loose construc- 
tion" theory of the constitution, holding that congress had 
certain powers, which, though not expressed, were implied 
in the constitution. 

Their opponents were "strict constructionists," holding to 
the letter of the constitution. They accused the Federalists 
of "monarchical tendencies." They opposed a strong 
national government, and held to the theory of "state's 
rights." At this time a party had appeared in France 
known as Republican. Jefferson, having but recently returned 
from France, suggested that the name "Anti-Federalist" be 
now dropped and that the term "Democratic-Republican" be 
substituted therefor. This party in the days of President 
Jackson became the Democratic party — the name which it 
bears at the present day. 

Hamilton was the leader of the Federalists, and Jefferson 
the leader of the Democratic- Republicans. 

304. Foreign Affairs. — During Washington's administra- 
tion, trouble arose with four foreign nations — Algiers, Spain, 
France, and England. 

The pirates of Algiers had captured many American ves- 
sels and imprisoned or enslaved their crews. For the release 
of these seamen the United States i3aid a ransom of $1,000,- 
000; and later, in 1795, was obliged to enter into a humiliat- 
ing treaty with Algiers, in which she agreed to pay an annual 
tribute in order to secure the freedom of the Mediterranean 



252 HISTORY or the united states 

to American commerce. In this she but followed the 
example of European nations in their relation to the pirate 
states. 

Spain at tnat time had come into possession of Florida 
and the country west of the Mississippi Eiver. She held 
New Orleans, which controlled the navigation of the Missis- 
sippi, and soon began interfering with the free navigation of 
that stream. She also insisted on placing the boundary of 
West Florida farther north than the United States would 
concede. By treaty with Spain in 1795 the free navigation 
of the Mississippi was secured, and the northern limit of 
Florida was fixed. 

England had not surrendered the western posts, as she had 
agreed. With these posts in her possession, she provoked 
uprisings among the Indians. On the sea she interfered 
with American commerce, even capturing American vessels 
and forcing American seamen into the British service. Eng- 
land and France being at war, each sought the sympathy 
of America. Washington, by proclamation, declared the 
United States a neutral nation, friendly to both belligerents. 
England retaliated by issuing a decree called Orders in 
Council, which forbade the United States having commer- 
cial relations with France. Congress responded with an 
embargo act, forbidding American commerce with Great 
Britain. The two countries were rapidly drifting toward 
war, when Washington dispatched John Jay to negotiate a 
treaty with England. Jay's treaty, made in 1795, quieted 
the trouble, though its terms provoked bitter opposition in 
America. 

France had assisted America during the Eevolution, and 
that country held that the treaty of 1778 bound us to return 
the favor now. Many Americans were anxious to do so, for 
in the war which France and England were waging, France 
held the popular sympathy. Washington, however, insisted 
on the country's remaining neutral, much to the disgust and 
anger of the French. The French minister to the United 



FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 253 

States, M. Genet, fitted out a number of privateer ships, 
which he manned with American crews. These began prey- 
ing upon the commerce of Great Britain. Our government 
objected, but Genet continued in defiance of its wishes and 
demands. So high-handed had Genet's interference become 
that Washington demanded his recall. 

305. The Indian Trouble in the Northwest: Wayne's 
Decisive Victory— 1794.— The Indians in the Northwest Ter- 
ritory, secretly encouraged by the British, were giving the 
United States much trouble. Two government expeditions 
against them had already met with disaster— one under Gen- 
eral Harmer, and the second under General St. Clair, gov- 
ernor of the Northwest Territory. St. Clair's army of two 
thousand men had been almost completely cut to pieces. 
Washington now dispatched "Mad Anthony" Wayne to the 
seat of the trouble. Wayne in 1794 met the savages at a point 
near the present city of Toledo and routed them. In the 
treaty which followed, the Indians agreed to abide by the sale 
of land they had formerly made. This opened up the way 
for the rapid settlement of the Ohio valley. 

306. The Whiskey Insurrection — 1794. — The excise tax 
provoked opposition among the distillers in North Carolina, 
Virginia, and Pennsylvania. In western Pennsylvania an 
open revolt occurred, known as the Whiskey Insurrection. 
The insurgents refused to pay the tax, even going so far as 
to tar and feather the revenue collectors. A state of lawless- 
ness prevailed, when Washington called out fifteen thousand 
militia. This army, under General Henry Lee, marched to 
the scene of the difficulty and promptly suppressed the revolt. 
Thus was the new government enabled to show its ability 
to enforce its own laws and to "insure domestic tranquillity." 

307. New States : Vermont— 1791 ; Kentucky— 1792 ; Ten- 
nessee— 1796. — Three new states were admitted during Wash- 
ington's administration. Vermont was admitted as a free state, 
her constitution prohibiting slavery. Kentucky and Tennes- 
see were admitted with constitutions permitting slavery. 



254 HISTORY OF THE UNITKI) STATES 

308. Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin and Its Relation to Slav- 
ery — 1792. — The question of slavery in the Constitutional 
Convention had been settled only by compromise — South 
Carolina and Georgia having stubbornly opposed all inter- 
ference with slavery. The sentiment in the northern states 
was in favor of its abolition. The sentiment in the soutli 
in favor of emanci[)ation had grown very feeble, when it 
was completely extinguished in 1702 by the invention of the 
cotton gin by Eli Whitney. Seldom has an invention had 
so great an effect upon a single industry as had Whitney's 
invention on the cotton industry in the soutii, where it was 
asserted that in the cultivation of cotton, slave labor could 
not be dispensed with — 

and thus slavery was to be 
continued because a great 
industry demanded it. 

309. The First Census 
— 1790. — Two years be- 
fore the invention of the 
cotton gin the first cen- 
sus had been taken. This 
revealed the fact that the 
United States had a total 
population of 3,929,827. Of this population, 697,897 were 
negro slaves — 40,370 of them being north of Mason and 
Dixon's line, and 057,527 south. 

310. Washington's Farewell Address. — The term of office 
of president of the United States is four years, and extends 
from March 4 to March 4. Washington, having served out 
Ins first term, was unanimously reelected in 1793. As the 
period of his second term drew to a close, he signified his 
intention of retiring from public life. This intention he 
made public in a farewell address to the people of the United 
States, which was first published in the Philadelphia "Daily 
Advertiser" September 17, 1790. The address is full of the 
most profound wisdom, and ranks as one of the classics in 




ELI WHITNEY'S COTTON GIN 



FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON^ 255 

our literature. In it Washington bade the people beware of 
entangling foreign alliances. He deprecated the extreme 
bitterness of party strife; he urged upon the people the 
cultivation of a national spirit, insisting that above all else 
they should be Americans, and true to the underlying 
principles upon which the American nation had been 
founded. 

311. The Presidential Election of 1796.— No sooner had 
Washington signified his intention of retiring than a contest 
ensued between the Federalists and the Democratic-Kepubli 
cans for the control of the government. 

Adams, as the candidate of the Federalists, advocated a 
strong government, defended the establishment of the 
United States Bank, the assumption of the state debts, Jay's 
treaty with England, and insisted on keeping free from 
European politics. 

Jefferson, as the candidate of the Democratic-Republicans, 
took the opposite side of these questions, excepting that he 
was eqnally anxious to avoid foreign entanglement. He 
insisted on the greatest simplicity in the administration of 
of the government. His party was in sympathy with 
France. 

The parties being very evenly divided, the contest was 
waged with great bitterness. The Democratic -Eepublicans 
charged Adams and his followers with a leaning toward 
monarchy and sympathy for England, — taunting them with 
ingratitude toward France, their late benefactor. On their 
part, the Federalists charged Jefferson with an attempt to 
build up the state at the expense of the central govern- 
ment, — taunting him with being in league with the Jacobins 
of France. 

Adams was elected by a majority of three; Jefferson, by 
the rule then in vogue, having received the next highest 
number of votes, became vice-president. 



256 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



ADMIN^ISTRATIOIN^ OF JOHJT ADAMS 

FEDERALIST: IIQI-IHOI 

312. John Adams, the second ^^resident of the United 
States, was the son of a Massachusetts farmer. At the age 
of twenty, he graduated from Harvard College; he after- 
wards taught school, and was later admitted to the bar. As 
a lawyer, he ably defended the British soldiers at the time of 
the Boston Massacre. He was a member of both Continental 
Congresses, and of the committee which framed the Declara- 
tion of Independence. Through his influence the Dutch 
republic acknowledged the independence of the United 
States. He was minister to that country in 1782. He was 
a member of the American Peace Commission Avhich nego- 
tiated the treaty at the close of the Revolution. In 1785 he 
was appointed minister to the English court. On his return 
in 1788, he was elected vice-president of the United States. 
In politics he was a Federalist. He supported the policy 
of Washington in the trouble with England, and became the 
strong opponent of Thomas Jefferson. 

He was born in 1735, and died on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth 
anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. The coin- 
cidence has been remarked in history that Thomas Jefferson 
expired on the same day. Though for many years political 
and personal enemies, Adams and Jefferson in later life 
became reconciled. 

Adams was a ready speaker and writer, although often 
indiscreet both in speech and in the use of his pen. Though 
popular with the mass of his party, he failed of reelection 
owing to the fact that many of the Federalist leaders refused 
to indorse him on account of his energetic support of the 
Alien and Sedition laws. 

313. Trouble with France. — In the very beginning of his 
administration, Adams was confronted by trouble with 
France, which had been brewing since Jay's treaty with Eng- 



FROM AVASHINGTOX TO JACKSOK 257 

land. The French government held that that treaty was a 
violation of the treaty made between France and the United 
States in 1778, and charged the United States with ingrati- 
tude. The Democratic-Republicans had openly expressed 
their sympathy for France; while Adams and the Federal- 
ists, following the example of Washington, insisted on 
neutrality. Diplomatic relations between the two countries 
were on the point of being severed, when Adams dispatched 
three special envoys to France to reestablish, if possible, 
friendly relations between the two republics. 

314. The X, Y, Z Correspondence: ''Millions for Defence; 
Not One Cent for Tribute." — The commissioners arrived in 
France, but found it impossible to obtain an interview with 
Talleyrand, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
Instead of granting an interview, that wily diplomat desig- 
nated three agents to treat with the American envoys. The 
negotiations were carried on by correspondence. In the 
dispatches to the American government, the American 
commissioners designated Talleyrand's agents by the letters 
*'X," "Y," and "Z," instead of by name. On the side of 
France this correspondence was not only disrespectful to the 
United States, but discreditable to the French government 
as well. The French agents even went so far as to hint that 
in the settlement of the dispute, a bribe from the United 
States would be acceptable to the French minister, to which 
Charles C. Pinckney, one of the American commissioners, 
indignantly replied that the United States had ''millions 
for defence, not one cent for tribute." Negotiations were at 
once broken off, and the commissioners returned home. 

315. War with France Averted. —When the "X, Y, Z" 
correspondence was published in America, it produced bitter 
feeling against France. Even the Democratic-Republicans 
resented the insult, and now consented to follow the lead of 
the J'ederal party and, if need be, to meet the issue by a 
declaration of war. All treaties with France were declared 
to be no longer binding. While war was not proclaimed, 



258 illSTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 

congress voted to create an army. Washington was to be at 
its head, and Hamilton, second in command. It was also 
voted to build a navy. Merchant ships were authorized to 
arm themselves for the purpose of seizing French ships on 
the high seas. War had actually begun on the sea when 
Talleyrand, now alarmed at the turn affairs had taken, dis- 
avowed the insults offered by his agents, and proposed to 
receive any minister whom the American government might 
send. Adams, acting promptly, dispatched ambassadors to 
France. These being courteously received by the French 
minister, all danger of war was averted. 

316. The Alien and Sedition Laws — 1798. — By his prompt 
action in averting war, Adams lost the support of at least 
one-half the Federal party — the Federalists being in favor 
of war; but he gained, on the other hand, the respect of the 
Democratic-Republicans. This he could no doubt have 
held, had it not been that congress, during the heat of the 
excitement, unwisely passed the Alien and Sedition laws. 

Many foreigners in America (particularly those from 
France) were suspected of plotting against the government. 
The Alien Act authorized the president to order out of the 
country all foreigners whose presence was suspected of being 
dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States. 

At this time, too, the government encountered much 
opposition from the ^^artisan press of the country. It was 
charged by the Federalists that the editorials of this press 
were scandalous and malicious, and were intended to bring 
disrepute upon the national government by stirring up sedi- 
tion. The Sedition Act provided for the fining and 
imprisonment of any person who should 2^rint or publish any 
false, scandalous, or malicious writiiig against the govern- 
ment, congress, or the president. 

These laws provoked bitter opposition in every part of the 
country. The president declined to exercise his authority 
under the Alien Act; but aided in prosecutions under the 
Sedition Law. In so doino^ Adams not oulv destroyed his 



FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON" 259 

chance of reelection, bnt assisted in the complete downfall of 
the Federal party. 

317. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions — 1798. — 
During the controversy over the Alien and Sedition laws, the 
first serious collision between the friends and opponents of 
the "state's rights" theory occurred. Both the Virginia and 
the Kentucky legislatures passed resolutions denouncing the 
laws — the Kentucky resolutions being especially outspoken 
in declaring that any state could nullify a law of the 
national government when such law was "unconstitutional." 
The expiration of the Alien and Sedition laws removed the 
cause of the trouble, but the doctrine thus voiced became a 
disturbing element in legislation — leading, in 1861, to the 
Civil War. 

318. The Second Census — 1800. — The second census of the 
United States was taken in 1800, showing a total population 
of 5,305,937 (including 993,041 slaves) — an increase of 
thirty-five per cent over the census of 1790. 

319. John Marshall, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court — 
1801. — As one of the last acts of his administration, Adams 
appointed John Marshall chief justice of the supreme court 
of tlie United States. No wiser appointment has ever been 
made by a president of the republic. The opinions which 
Chief Justice Marshall rendered during the thirty-five years 
of his service are to-day considered as authority upon all 
questions of constitutional law. By his broad, clear, and 
statesmanlike interpretation of the constitution, he greatly 
aided in establishing a firm national union, and imparted life 
and vigor to the constitution. 

320. The Presidential Election of 1800.— The presidential 
election of 1800 was even more bitter than that of 179G. 
Adams and Jefferson were again the candidates of their 
respective parties. The vice-presidential candidates were 
Charles C. Pinckney, Federalist, and Aaron Burr, Demo- 
cratic-Republican. The constitution at that time provided 
that the person receiving the highest number of votes in the 



L 



2G0 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATE8 

electoral college should be president; the person receiving 
the next highest, vice-president. AVhen the electoral votes 
had been counted, it was found that Jefferson and Bnrr had 
each received seventy-three votes — thereby tying the two 
candidates on the Democratic-Republican ticket. Under the 
constitution, it now devolved upon the house of represent- 
atives to make the choice between these two candidates. As 
the time for the election by the house drew near, the excite- 
ment became intense. The Federalists, hoping to defeat 
Jefferson, decided to throw their votes to Burr. A bitter 
contest resulted, ending in the election of Jefferson for presi- 
dent and Burr for vice-president. 

This unfortunate contest led to the adoption of the 
Twelfth Amendment to the constitution, which provides 
that the votes of the electoral college shall be cast separately 
for president and for vice-president. 

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 

DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAX: IStll-lSOU 

321. Thomas Jefferson, third president of the United 
States, was the first president to be inaugurated at the new 
national capital — the city of Washington having become the 
seat of government in 1800. Jefferson was the author of the 
Declaration of Independence ; he had served several terms in 
the Continental Congress; and had been governor of Vir- 
ginia. In 1785 he succeeded Benjamin Franklin at the 
court of France. On his return to America, he became 
secretary of state under Washington, and later served as 
vice-president during the administration of John Adams. He 
founded the Democratic party, and was its undisputed leader 
even after he had retired to private life. As a protest 
against the Alien and Sedition laws, he drafted the Ken- 
tucky resolutions of 1708. 

He was a graduate of William and Mary College, and was 
a believer in the education of the masses. He founded the 
University of Virginia a few years before his death. On his 



FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 



261 




^■""-vv. 



retirement to private life, on his estate at Monticello, he 
carried on an extensive correspondence with prominent 
personages in Europe and America. On account of his 
learning he was called "The Sage of Monticello." 

On assuming the presidency, he held that it was unbecom- 
ing the republic 
to imitate the 
customs of the 
monarchies of 
Europe, and in 
his administra- 
tion he intro- 
duced extreme 
reforms. He 
abolished the 
presidential re- 
ceptions, sent his 
annual messages 
to congress by- 
messenger, reduced the number of foreign ministers, reduced 
the navy, and advocated the greatest economy in the public 
expenditures. 

Provoked by the fact that Adams, just before retiring from 
office, had appointed many Federalists to government posi- 
tions, Jefferson began the system of the removal of political op- 
ponents from office, which afterwards became known as the 
"spoils system" — sometimes referred to as "rotation in office." 

On becoming president, he appointed as his secretary of 
state, James Madison, whom he had selected to succeed him 
in office. 

Jefferson served two terms as president, being reelected in 
1804: by a vote, in the electoral college, of one hundred 
sixty-two to fourteen. He was born in Virginia in 1743, 
and died at Monticello, that state, in 1826. 

322. The Louisiana Purchase— 1803: Territorial Expan- 
sion. — The greatest event of Jefferson's administration was 



MONTICELLO 



262 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the purchase of Louisiana (1803) from the French govern- 
ment under Napoleon Bonaparte. Spain had owned this 
territory from the close of the French and Indian War to the 
year 1800, when she secretly transferred it to France. This 
vast territory consisted of New Orleans and its adjacent ter- 
ritory, and extended westward from the Mississippi River to 
the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico and 
Texas on the south to the British possessions on the north, — 
though its northern and southern boundaries were not defi- 
nitely established. Jefferson, in order to accomplish this 
purchase, had to depart from his "strict construction" 
theory, but he recognized that the possession of this territory 
was of vital importance to the future of the United States. 
The government had always had more or less trouble with 
Spain on account of Spanish interference in the navigation 
of the Mississippi River, and it was well known that France 
would be no less troublesome. 

James Monroe, whom Jefferson appointed as special envoy, 
closed the negotiations for the purchase already completed 
by Livingston, the regular minister at the court of France. 
Though Napoleon had agreed with Spain never to cede the 
territory to any other power, he was so pressed for money on 
account of the wars in which he was engaged, that Livingston 
succeeded in making the purchase for $15,000,000. In addi- 
tion to this sum, the United States agreed to pay all debts 
due from the French government to the American citizens. 

Although little was known of this vast territory at that 
time, later years demonstrated the wisdom of Jefferson's 
purchase. By this purchase, the L^nited States secured the 
absolute control of the Mississippi River, and came into pos- 
session of that rich and valuable territory from which has 
been carved a large number of the best states of the Ameri- 
can Union. 

323. The "Territory of Orleans" and the "District of 
Louisiana." — Soon after the purchase of this territory, con- 
gress divided it into the Territory of Orleans and the District 



FROM WASIIIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 



263 



of Louisiana. The boundary line between the two was the 
30th parallel of north latitude. 

The Territory of Orleans had at that time a population of 
fifty thousand people, one-half of whom were slaves. The 
city of New Orleans itself numbered eight thousand. The 
settlers were engaged in the cultivation of the cotton and 
the sugar plant — the latter had but recently been intro- 
duced from the West Indies. From the production of these 
two plants vast fortunes were being made by the planters of 
that section. New Orleans was rapidly becoming a center of 
wealth, and a tide of immigration accordingly set in 
toward the new territory. 

In the District of Louisiana the white population did not 
exceed five thousand people. This was now set apart as an 
"Indian country," and a movement was set on foot to induce 
the Indians to receive it in exchange for land east of the 
Mississippi River — a policy which succeeded only in later 
years. For purposes of government, the District of Louisi- 
ana was attached to the Territory of Indiana. 




ROUTE OF THE LEWIS AND CLARK IXPEDITION 

324. The Lewis and Clark Expedition— 1803-1806.— After 

the Louisiana purchase, congress passed an act providing for 



264 



HISTORY OP THE UIS^ITED STATES 



the exploration of the territory thus acquired. Under this 
act, the Lewis and Clark expedition was organized in 1803. 
Starting at the city of St. Louis, in 1804, Merri wether 
Lewis and William Clark, with a small company of men, 
ascended the Missouri River to its source in the Rocky Moun- 
tains; crossed to the head-waters of the Columbia River, and 
floated down that stream to the Pacific Ocean. After an 
absence of two years, they safely made the return trip, reach- 
ing St. Louis in 1806. All the members of this courageous 
little band of explorers Avere granted large tracts of public 
land by the government, and the officers were given additional 
remuneration. Lewis became governor of the Territory of 
Louisiana, which was organized shortly after his return. 




OREGON COUNTRY 



325. The Oregon Country and Astoria. — On the strength of 
Lewis and Clark's report, the United States at once laid 
claim to that stretcli of country since known as the "Oregon 



FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 265 

country"— comprising the present states of Oregon, Wash- 
ington, and Idaho, and a portion of British Columbia. 

The Oregon country had been visited in 1792 by Captain 
Gray of Boston, in his ship Columbia. While engaged in 
trafficking with the Indians on the Pacific coast, he had dis- 
covered and named the Columbia River in honor of his ship. 
In that day, as in the days of the early explorers, the pos- 
session of the mouth of a river carried with it the right to 
all the country which it drained; thus, since the Columbia 
River drained practically the whole of the* 'Oregon country," 
the United States, encouraged by the reports of Lewis and 
Clark, laid claim to the country on the strength of Captain 
Gray's discovery. The Pacific Fur Company, an organiza- 
tion founded in New York by John Jacob Astor, strength- 
ened our government's claim by founding a settlement at 
Astoria (1811), on the Columbia River. 

326. Ohio Admitted to the Union— 1803.— Ohio, the first 
state to be formed out of the Northwest Territory, was 
admitted to the union in 1803, as the seventeenth state. 
Her constitution provided liberally for the support of her 
public schools, and prohibited slavery. 

327. Duel between Hamilton and Burr — 1804. — Alexander 
Hamilton and Aaron Burr had been political enemies from 
the time of the organization of the government. Burr, 
while still vice-president of the United States, became a 
candidate for governor of New York. Hamilton, now a 
private citizen, threw his influence against Burr, thereby 
defeating him. Burr, embittered by his defeat, challenged 
Hamilton to a duel. Hamilton thought that he could not 
decline the challenge. They met on the dueling field oppo- 
site New York city, and at the first fire, Hamilton 
received his death wound at the hand of Burr. 

The result of this duel produced intense excitement 
throughout the country, and served to call attention forcibly 
to the crime of dueling. That method of settling disputes 
DOW came under the ban of public censure in the north, 



266 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



though in the south it was still approved. A grand jury in 
New Jersey at once indicted Burr for murder. 

328. Burr's Conspiracy in the Southwest and His Trial for 
Treason — 1807. — Burr, now a fugitive from justice, went 
into the southwest country, where he became involved in 
the organization of some mysterious scheme, the full nature 
of which has never been known. It is believed that he 
planned to establish an empire in the southwest, the same to 
include Texas and a portion of the territory of the United 
States, with New Orleans as its capital. Burr, of course, 
Avas to be its emperor. He was so strongly suspected of 
conspiracy against the government that Jefferson issued a 
proclamation in 1806 which led to his arrest a year later on 
the charge of treason. In the resulting trial at Richmond, 
Virginia, this charge, however, was not sustained, and Burr 
went free. 

329. The Cumberland National Road— 1806.— In the year 
1806 congress passed an act providing for the building of a 




■UK C'l'MBEKI.ANO NATIONAI 



national road — the same to extend from Cumberland, Mary- 
land, to Wheeling, West Virginia, — a distance of one hun- 
dred forty miles. The development of the western country 
made such a road almost an imperative necessity. The road 
was completed to Wheeling in 1820, and later surveyed 
westward as far as Jefferson City, Missouri. By 1838 it had 



FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 



26' 



been completed to within a few miles of St. Louis, — a dis- 
tance of nearly eight hundred miles, — when work was dis- 
continued owing to the fact that the railroad had superseded 
it. Portions of it were then transferred to the several states 
through which it passed, on the condition that the states 
would keep it in repair. 

As a means in the development and growth of the great 
west, the Cumberland road was an important factor. For 
years along this national thoroughfare, there was poured 
into the western country a vast population — the inhabitants 
of future states which were destined to give additional 
strength and stability to the national government. 

330. Robert Fulton and the First Steamboat— 1807.— 
Robert Fulton was the second American inventor to attract 

world-wide at- 
tention. He 
invented and per- 
fected the steam- 
boat Clermont, 
with which, 
in 1807, he made 
a successful trip 
from New York 
to Albany and 
return, traveling 
at the rate of 
five miles per 
hour This invention was soon to revolutionize the com- 
merce of the world. 

331. The Barbary States and the Tripolitan War— 1803- 
1805. — The Barbary states were a group of pirate states 
located along or near the northern coast of Africa, of which 
the chief were Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco. These 
states made their living by preying upon the commerce of 
other nations or demanding tribute money. By the treaty 
with Algiers in 1795, the United States agreed to pay tribute 




THK FIRST STEAMBOAT 



268 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to the pirates of that country. She later entered into a 
similar treaty with Tunis, but in sp'^e of this annual tribute, 
American commerce continued to be molested, and her 
officers insulted. In 1800, a few of these states made a 
demand upon President Adams for more tribute money. 
The following year, a similar demand was made upon his suc- 
cessor. Jefferson replied by sending a fleet of American war 
vessels under Commodore Dale to make a demonstration 
(1801) on the coast of the pirate states. A pirate cruiser 
was captured, and for a time American commerce had the 
freedom of the Mediterranean. 

Two years later, however, congress declared war against 
Tripoli, which was concluded by a treaty of peace in 1805. 
In this war, Lieutenant, afterwards Commodore, Decatur 
first distinguished himself as a naval officer. The American 
fleet captured many vessels, though it suffered the loss of 
the frigate Philadelphia, under Captain Bainbridge, who, 
with all his crew, fell into the hands of the Tripolitans. By 
the provisions of the treaty, these prisoners were ransomed 
by the payment of S00,000. 

332. Trouble with Great Britain and France. — Jefferson did 
not escape his share of trouble with Great Britain and France. 
Under Napoleon, war between these two countries had been 
renewed with vigor, and nearly all the nations of Europe had 
become involved. The United States, remaining neutral, 
was soon engaged in carrying nearly the whole of the com- 
merce of Europe — a circumstance which made England ex- 
ceedingly jealous of the growing commercial importance of 
the young republic. Many American sea-captains, however, 
became so bold as to abuse their rights as neutrals. Supplies 
for France were sent to American ports; here transferred to 
American ships, and sent to France under a neutral flag. Eng- 
land, glad of an excuse, retaliated by capturing American 
vessels suspected of carrying French cargoes, and renewed 
her old policy of stopping and searching American vessels for 
British deserters, and of impressing American seamen. 



FKUM WASHINGTON TO .lACKSUN 261) 

As the war continued, American trade suffered more and 
more at the hands of both England and France. After 
England's great naval victory at Trafalgar (October, 1805), 
her sea-captains became insolent in the extreme, practically 
establishing a blockade of the American ports, and capturing 
American vessels indiscriminately, — almost as soon as they 
had put to sea. American commerce thus became a bone of 
contention between these two powers, now engaged in a 
death grapple for the mastery of Europe. 

333. The British Orders in Council : Napoleon's Berlin and 
Milan Decrees. — In 1806 England notified the United States 
that she had issued an Order in Council establishing a block- 
ade of certain French and other European ports, and inti- 
mated that American commerce with these ports was at an 
end until the blockade should be raised. The United 
States, however, insisted that this was a "paper blockade" 
(meaning thereby that England did not keep men-of-war 
at the blockaded ports in order to enforce it), and in her turn 
intimated that it would not be respected. 

Napoleon's reply to England's Order in Council was the 
Berlin Decree, which declared the British Islands to be in a 
state of blockade, and forbade all commerce with them, by 
any country whatsoever. 

Great Britain's rejoinder to the Berlin Decree was another 
Order in Council (this time a sweeping one), which now 
declared all ports of France and her allies (Italy, Spain, Hol- 
land, and Germany) to be in a state of blockade, and, in 
effect, forbade the United States, though a neutral power, 
trading with any of these countries. 

To this Order in Council, Napoleon retorted in a similar 
manner with the Milan Decree, which virtually forbade the 
United States trading with Great Britain, or any of her 
colonies, and at the same time ordered the capture of 
American ships which should permit themselves to be 
searched by English vessels. 

Thus was the commerce of the United States being crushed 



270 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 

as between an upper and a nether millstone. If American 
ships ventured to trade with England, they were held sub- 
ject to capture by the French; should they trade with the 
French, they were liable to capture by the English. One- 
half of the mercantile ports of the world were closed by Eng- 
land, the other half by France. And, furthermore, America 
could not even carry on trade between ports on her own coast 
without running the risk of being waylaid by some British 
cruiser insisting on the right of search and impressment. 

334. The Affair of the Chesapeake and Leopard— June 
22, 1807. — As a consequence of this state of affairs an event 
occurred in 1807 which aroused Americans in all parts of 
the country. The British frigate Leopard fired into the 
American frigate Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia, caus- 
ing the latter to strike her colors. Four sailors, three of 
them American citizens, were seized. The Americans were 
thrown into prison, and the fourth man was tried by court 
martial and promptly hanged from the yard-arm of a British 
man-of-war. Hereupon the president promptly ordered all 
British war vessels out of American ports, called a special 
session of congress to consider the state of public affairs, 
and dispatched a vessel to England to demand reparation. 

335. Jefferson's Policy of Nonresistance. — To meet these 
outrages committed against American commerce by England, 
three ways suggested themselves to Jefferson — war, diplo- 
macy, or retaliatory legislation. 

War was dismissed as impossible, the United States not 
being prepared for such an event. Indeed, Jefferson, as a 
man of peace, Avas at all times opposed to war, and in pursu- 
ance of this policy had discouraged the building of a navy. 
At the very beginning of the Napoleonic wars, congress, 
at Jefferson's suggestion, had authorized the building of a 
large number of small gunboats, mounted with one or two 
guns each, and intended for coast defence only. In case of 
emergency, these were to be manned by volunteer crews 
selected from the militia. When not in use, thev were to 



FRO.M WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON 271 

be hauled up under sheds, like a farmer's implements during 
the winter season. This gunboat flotilla became the laughing 
stock of both Europe and America, 

Hoping to settle the matter by diplomacy, Jefferson dis- 
patched James Monroe and William Pinckney to England to 
arbitrate the difficulties. They negotiated a treaty, but this, 
when submitted to Jefferson, was so unsatisfactory that he 
rejected it — refusing even to submit it to the senate. 

The only course now left was to resort to retaliatory legis- 
lation. Accordingly, a Nonimportation Act, an Embargo Act, 
and later, a Nonintercourse Act, were passed by congress. 

336. Nonimportation Act Goes into Effect — Dec. 14, 
1807. — Congress, prior to the Chesapeake affair, had passed 
a Nonimportation Act (April 18, 1806) prohibiting the 
importation of all English goods which came into competi- 
tion with American manufactures. This act, however, was 
to go into effect at the discretion of the president. After 
the Chesapeake affair he purposely delayed action on the 
matter until he could hear England's reply to his demand 
for reparation. 1'hat reply being evasive, he ordered that the 
Nonimportation Act become operati\^e December 14, 1807. 

337. The Embargo Act— Dec. 22, 1807.— A few days after 
the Nonimportation Act had gone into effect, congress, on 
Jefferson's advice, passed an Embargo Act, prohibiting 
American vessels leaving America for any foreign port. 
The act was unpopular, and was evaded by American sea- 
men. It failed to bring either England or France to terms, 
and did great injury both to the shipping interests and the 
export trade of the country — while it almost ruined the 
farming class. Manufactures alone reaped a benefit from 
this unwise legislation. 

338. Nonintercourse Act — 1809. — Just before the close oi 
Jefferson's administration both the Embargo and Nonimpor- 
tation Acts were repealed (February 28, 1809) and replaced 
by a Nonintercourse Act (March 1, 1809) which forbade 
British and French vessels to enter the ports of the United 



272 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

States, suspended all trade with those countries, -and prohib- 
ited the importation of any of their products or manufac- 
tures. 

Jefferson's whole policy had been to avert war, and to 
bring England and France to terms by restricting their com- 
merce. But the experiment had failed — neither country had 
been brought to terms, and war was still threatening when he 
retired from office ^larch 4, 1809. 

339. Presidential Election of 1808. — Meanwhile the presi- 
dential election had taken place, resulting in the choice of 
James Madison of Virginia for president, and George Clin- 
ton of New York for vice-president. Out of the one hun- 
dred seventy-six electoral votes, the Democratic-Eepublicans 
received one hundred twenty-two, and the Federalists but 
forty-four. Charles C. Pinckney of South Carolina and 
Rufus King of New York were the candidates of the 
Federalist party. 

In the contest, the Democratic-Republicans adhered to the 
principles of Jefferson, approved the purchase of Louisiana, 
and professed belief in the wisdom of Jefferson's Embargo 
Act. The Federalists railed at the purchase of Louisiana, 
and condemned Jefferson's Embargo Act as not included in 
the powers of congress to regulate commerce. 

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 

DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN: 1809-1817 

340. James Madison, fourth president of the United 
States, graduated from Princeton College at the age of 
twenty-one. He became an active member of the Conti- 
nental Congress during the closing days of the Revolution. 
Recognizing the weakness of the government under the 
Articles of Confederation, he put forth every effort to have 
the Articles amended. In the Constitutional'Convention he 
wa? one of the most conspicuous members. The perfecting 
of the constitution was due more to the skill of Madison than 
that of any other man. Being a Virginian, it was largely 



FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 2T3 

througn his influence with the southern delegates that the 
three great compromises were brought about; and it was 
also due to his influence that Virginia ratified the consti- 
tution. The services rendered by Madison in connection 
with the making and the ratification of the constitution won 
for him the appellation "The Father of the Constitution." 

After the formation of the Democratic-Republican party 
he immediately took a place beside Jefferson as one of its 
prominent leaders. He was the author of the Virginia reso- 
lutions in 1798. He served several terms in the national 
congress, and for eight years was Jefferson's secretary of 
state. 

Always opposed to war, he yielded to the declaration of 
war in 1812, only under the threat that his party would 
defeat his reelection if he opposed it. Historians have held 
that his management of that war was feeble, due to the fact 
that his abilities were unsuited to the management of 
vigorous military campaigns. 

As a man, he was modest at all times; quiet, and reserved 
in his manner; and noted for his refinement, his learning, and 
his courteous treatment of friend and foe. He served two 
terms as president, being reelected in 1804, with Elbridge 
Gerry as vice-president. Madison was born in Virginia in 
1T51, and died at Montpelier, that state, in 1836. 

341. Effect of the Repeal of the Embargo. — The repeal of 
the Embargo Act came at a time when Napoleon had lost 
Spain as an ally, — an event which threw the ports of Spain 
and Portugal open to American commerce. Using these 
ports as intermediary stations, American seamen were 
thereby enabled to carry on trade with both England and 
France. And then, too, France and England also permitted 
(under special license) direct trade with America in some 
articles. 

Under these favorable conditions American commerce 
revived, and American seamen were once more engaged in 
carrying nearly the whole of the commerce of Europe. 



274 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

342. Madison's Negotiations. — The Nonintercourse Act, 
however, remained, and Madison at once sought to use it as 
a means of securing a repeal of the British Orders in Council 
and Napoleon's Decrees. 

He accordingly negotiated with the British envoy at Wash- 
ington a treaty withdrawing the Orders in Council. As soon 
as the treaty was signed, Madison issued a proclamation sus- 
pending the British clause of the Nonintercourse Act. 
This sent all the merchant ships then shut up in America 
flying to foreign ports. But Madison had been too hasty — 
when the treaty reached England it was rejected by the Brit- 
ish government. The envoy had exceeded his instructions, 
and Madison was now forced to issue a proclamation renew- 
ing the act. An attempt to negotiate with France met with 
little better success, though the attitude of France was more 
conciliatory than that of England. In this, however. Napo- 
leon was playing a desperate game of war politics in which 
he planned both to despoil American commerce and to pro- 
voke the United States and England to war. 

343. The Macon Bill— May 1, 1810.— Thus all retaliatory 
legislation had failed. Congress, now tired of resistance, 
passed the Macon Bill Number Two, which in effect repealed 
the Nonintercourse Act. The bill, however, contained the 
foolish proviso that the president could declare the act in 
force against either England or France, should the com- 
mercial Orders or Decrees of either nation be continued in 
force while those of the other were repealed. 

344. Napoleon's Double Dealing. — This proviso in the 
Macon Bill led to new complications. It practically said 
that if England repealed her Orders in Council and France 
kept her Berlin and Milan Decrees in force, then the United 
States would become the friend of England and the enemy of 
France. On the other hand, should France repeal her 
Decrees while England left the Orders standing, the situation 
would be reversed. 

Napoleon, quick to see his opportunity, sent a letter to the 



FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 275 

American minister at Paris, in which he pretended that the 
Berlin and Milan Decrees were already suspended so far as 
the United States was concerned, and intimated that their 
revocation would be announced as soon as England should 
withdraw her Orders in Council. Madison, misled by Napo- 
leon's pretense, issued a proclamation prohibiting trade with 
England because France had withdrawn her Decrees. Amer- 
ican ships, misled by Napoleon's trickery, now hastened to 
France, but they had no sooner arrived than they were seized 
by order of Napoleon, who was in need of supplies for his 
army. And Napoleon's bad faith did not stop at this — the 
French continued to plunder American commerce to the 
extent that by the year 1812 France had confiscated ten mil- 
lion dollars' worth of American property. 

Napoleon's purpose in thus preying upon the commerce of 
the United States was not alone to get needed supplies, but 
also to prevent England from repealing her Orders in Council. 
In this he was successful — England now insisted that since 
France continued to despoil American commerce, Napo- 
leon had not withdrawn his Decrees in good faith; and 
she refused absolutely to withdraw her Orders in Council. 

While the United States had as just a grievance against 
France as against England, still her chief enmity was now 
directed against England — due to the successful double deal- 
ing of Napoleon Bonaparte. France, when accused by the 
United States of violating the withdrawal of her Decrees, at 
once became conciliatory and expressed a willingness to treat 
with the United States in a manner satisfactory to the two 
countries. Later Napoleon, as a reply to the charge of bad 
faith, publicly announced the revocation of his Decrees. 
Thus had Madison played into the hands of France ; Napo- 
leon's trick had been successful. All war talk in the United 
States was now directed against England. 

In the meantime, two events had occurred which produced 
strained relations between the two countries and aroused the 
anger of the Americans against the British. 



276 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

346. The Indians and the British in the Northwest : The 
Battle of Tippecanoe — Nov. 7, 1811. — The British troops 
had not been withdrawn from the western frontier and the 
frequent Indian troubles along the border were often trace- 
able to British influence. Thus the people of Ohio and the 
northwest, remembering the British Indian policy during 
the Revolution, were thoroughly aroused against England and 
desired war. The most serious of these Indian troubles 
was a revolt led by the noted Indian chief, Tecumseh. 
This chief, with his brother, "the prophet," had been since 
1806 secretly inciting the Indians against the settlers and 
urging the savages to resist the advance of the white man 
upon their hunting grounds. Many murders were com- 
mitted and Indian raids indulged in. Attempts were made 
by William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana Territory, 
to negotiate a treaty with 'J'ecumseh, but that wily chief, 
while professing friendship for the Americans, successfully 
evaded the question and declined to call a peace conference. 
His actions became so suspicious that it was resolved to strike 
a blow against the savages with a hope of bringing them to 
terms and freeing the frontier from their depredations. 
Accordingly Governor Harrison with a few regulars and 
many volunteers from the western settlements, met Tecum- 
seh 's savage warriors in a pitched battle near their principal 
town on the Tippecanoe Eiver (November 7, 1811), and 
completely routed them. Tecumseh returned to the north, 
where he soon joined the British in Canada — a fact which 
now convinced the western settlers that the British were in 
league with the Indians, and the people of the northwest 
became clamorous for an attack upon the British in Canada. 

This battle brought Harrison prominently before the 
country as a military leader. President Madison, in a letter 
to congress, complimented his skill, and Indiana and Ken- 
tucky proffered him thanks. As the result of the promi- 
nence gained in this battle, Harrison became one of the chief 
leaders of the western army, gaining one of the early battles 



FKOM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 277 

of the war of 1812, in which the noted chief Tecumseh lost 
his life. It was largely due to Harrison's victory at Tippe- 
canoe that he afterwards won the presidency. 

346. President and Little Belt. — Off the coast of New 
Jersey, in May, 1811, the British cruiser Little Belt fired 
into the American frigate President, whereupon a battle 
ensued resulting in the disabling of the British sloop. An 
investigation was begun by the two governments, but on the 
recommendation of the British minister at Washington, the 
affair was dropped. It, however, created bitter feeling 
between the two countries. 

347. War Declared June 18, 1812. — Following these events 
the war spirit in America ran high, resulting in the election 
of a number of young men to congress (among them John 
C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford) — all of 
them eager for a contest at arms with Great Britain. This 
congress, known as the "War Congress," voted to raise and 
equip an army of 25,000 regular troops, 50,000 volunteers, 
and 100,000 militia. A few months later it passed another 
Embargo Act, and on June 18, 1812, declared war against 
Great Britain. 

348. Causes of the War of 1812.— The War of 1812 was due : 

(1) To England's blockade of American ports, and her 
refusal to withdraw her obnoxious Orders in Council. 

(2) To England's continued possession of the western forts 
and her inciting the Indians to commit depredations on the 
western borders. 

(3) To England's insisting on the right of search and 
impressment, and to a desire on the part of the United States 
to annex Canada. 

Two days before war had been declared. Great Britain 
withdrew her Orders in Council. When news of this event 
reached America, an attempt was made to have the declara- 
tion of war recalled, but the war spirit was too high in con- 
gress, and England, refusing to yield on the question of 
search and impressment, hostilities were begun. 



278 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

349. The Two Political Parties and the War.— Thus had the 
United States been involved in war on accouut of her con- 
nection with the war politics of Europe. The Democratic- 
Republican party, through Jefferson's influence, had always 
had a feeling of sympathy for France — while the Federalists 
were kindly disposed toward England. The former party 
was strongest in the south and west, — among the agricultural 
classes; the latter, in New England and the middle states, — 
among the commercial class. To the New Englanders par- 
ticularly, war meant destruction of their commerce. The 
agricultural class felt they had nothing to lose in the direc- 
tion of trade, and under the leadership of Clay and Calhoun, 
hoped for the conquest of Canada. 

350. Relative Strength of the Two Nations. — England had 
a population at that time of nearly twenty millions of people, 
as opposed to seven millions in the United States. 

England, after Nelson's great victory at Trafalgar, was the 
undisputed mistress of the seas — she had the most formidable 
navy in the world; while the navy of the United States con- 
sisted of less than a dozen frigates, and eight or ten brigs 
and sloops. England on account of the Napoleonic wars had 
large armies of well disciplined troops ready to put into the 
field; while the policy of the party in power in the United 
States had been opposed to the building of a navy, and the 
creation of a standing army. 

351. Madison's Conduct of the War. — Madison's conduct 
of the war did not add to his reputation as president. He 
was supreme as the maker of the constitution and as an able 
legislator in the halls of congress, but as a war president he 
failed. Some of the generals whom he at first selected, and 
some of the campaigns which he planned, reflected but little 
credit upon either Madison or the American army. He 
never awoke to a realization of the importance of the navy, 
always referring to American successes on the sea as *'our 
little naval victories." 

352. Events of 1812. — The American i)lan of operations in 



PROM WASIIIXGTOX TO JACKSON 



279 



1812 provided for the garrisoning of the coast defences along 
the Atlantic seaboard and the organization of three expedi- 
tions for the invasion of Canada — one by the army of the 
north, by way of Lake Champlain; another by the army of 
the center, by way of the Niagara River; and the third by 
the army of the west, by way of Detroit. 

General William Hull, commander of the western army, in- 
vaded Canada by way of Detroit. On crossing the river at that 
point, Hull unexpectedly encountered a force of British and In- 




dians under General Sir Isaac Brock. Hull thereupon hastily 
recrossed the river to Detroit where he soon disgracefully sur- 
rendered his entire force, consisting of two thousand men. 
Near the same time Fort Dearborn, on the present site of Chi- 
cago, and Fort Mackinaw, fell into the hands of the British. 

General Brock, after the capture of Detroit, hastened to 
the Niagara frontier, where he met the army of the center 
under General Solomon Y^n Rensselaer, just on the point of 
invading Canada, and defeated it at the battle of Queens- 
town Heights. 

The army of the north, awaiting the issue at Detroit and 
Niagara, accomplished nothing. 

Thus the land operations of this year ended in total fail- 
ure. The Americans, besides losing three thousand men as 
prisoners of war, lost the whole of the Michigan territory. 



280 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



On the sea, however, the neglected American navy, 
assisted by privateers, did valiant service, capturing three 
hundred or more British merchant ships and a number of 
men-of-war. 

The Constitution, under Captain Isaac Hull, encountered 
the British frigate Guerriere off Cape Race (August 19), 
and in a thirty-minute engagement so disabled the British 
frigate that she had to be blown up. Before the close of the 
war the Constitution, now under Captain William Bain- 
bridge, met the British frigate Java (December 20) off the 
coast of Brazil, and after a hotly-contested battle of over two 
hours, forced the Java to surrender. It was in this engage- 
ment that the Constitution won the name "Old Ironsides." 
The American sloop-of-war Wasp, under Captain Jacob 
Jones, captured the British brig Frolic after a terrific battle 
off the coast of North Carolina, and a few days later Com- 
modore Decatur, in command of the frigate United States, 
defeated the Macedonian in an engagement near the Canary 
Islands. 

353. Events of 1813.— At the beginning of 1813 the Amer- 
ican troops were under better discipline and were better 

officered. Three 



campaigns were 
planned — the 
army of the 
north, under 
General Wade 
Hampton, was 
expected to in- 
vade Canada by 
way of Lake 
Champlain ; the 
army of the 
center, under General Dearborn, was to operate on the Niag- 
ara frontier and Lake Ontario ; while the army of the west 
was expected to regain the territory lost by Hull. 




FKOM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 281 

At Frenchtown, on the river Eaisin, General Winchester, 
with a large American force, was captured by Colonel Proctor 
with a superior force of British and Indians — the savages com- 
mitting such atrocities as to horrify the entire country and 
place a stain forever upon the name of Proctor. Thereafter 
"Remember the Raisin" became the battle cry of the western 
army. Proctor now invaded Ohio with his horde of savages, 
besieged Fort Meigs, and attempted the capture of Fort 
Stephenson where he was gallautly repulsed. Unable to dis- 
lodge the Americans, and finding his savages deserting him 
in large numbers, he hastily returned to his headquarters at 
Fort Maiden in Canada. 

But one thing now prevented a successful invasion of 
Canada by the Americans — a British squadron under Com- 
modore Barclay had full control of Lake Erie. At this junc- 
ture Commodore Oliver H. Perry, a young man but 
twenty-eight years of age, came to the rescue. Perry hastily 
constructed a fleet of nine vessels, attacked the British 
squadron, and in a short and thrilling engagement captured 
(September 10) the entire fleet, "We have met the enemy 
and they are ours; two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and 
one sloop," was the brief dispatch sent by Perry to Gen- 
eral Harrison in notifying him of the victory. 

General Harrison at once embarked for Canada, drove the 
British from Fort Maiden, and brought Proctor and Tecum- 
seh to bay on the river Thames. Proctor was defeated and 
put to flight, Tecumseh killed, and the Indian confederacy 
went to pieces. Thus had the army of the west repelled 
the invasion of Ohio, gained the control of Lake Erie, dis- 
persed the Indian tribes, and regained Michigan. 

At about the same time the Creek Indians in Alabama, 
incited by the British, took up arms against the United 
States. They massacred the garrison and settlers at Fort 
Mimms, and were carrying everything before them when the 
settlers rose against them and defeated them in several bat- 
tles. The Creeks, however, continued to give trouble until 



282 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




the spring of 1814, when Andrew Jackson at the battle of 
Horseshoe Bend (March 29, 1814) defeated them with fearful 

slaughter, almost exterminating 
their entire nation. 

There was much fighting by 
the army of the center under 
General Dearborn. Toronto, 
the capital of Canada, was cap- 
tured by the Americans, but 
afterwards abaadoned. The 
British attacked Sackett's Har- 
bor, New York, and though at 
first successful, were afterwards 
driven from the place by Gen- 
eral Brown. Fort George, on 
the Canadian side, was taken by the Americans. About this 
time both Harrison and Dearborn resigned, and the army of 
the center, now under General AVilkiiison, was directed to 
cooperate with General Hampton's army of the north for the 
capture of Mon- 
treal. The two 
armies, however, 
failed to cooper- 
ate, and the 
attempt was 
abandoned. 

The successes 
on the sea in 
1813 were about 
equal between 
the two navies. 
The American 
Hornet, u n d e r 
Captain James 
Lawrence, sunk the British brig Peacock. Captain Law- 
rence, in command of the Chesapeake, lost both liis ship 




FKUM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON 283 

and his life in an encounter with the British frigate Shan- 
non off the coast of Cape Ann. "Don't give up the 
ship" — the last words of Captain Lawrence — became the 
motto of the American sailors. American privateers made 
many captures of British merchant ships during the year. 
The British, however, still kept up their blockade of 
American ports, and along the shores of the Delaware 
and Chesapeake bays marauding bands of sailors sacked 
and burned many unprotected American villages and 
towns. 

354. Events of 1814. — The British at the beginning of the 
war had planned the blockade of the Atlantic coast; the con- 
quest of the old Northwest Territory; the invasion of New 
York ; and the pushing of an army through the Lake Cham- 
plain region down the Hudson valley for the purpose of cut- 
ting off from the rest of the country the people of the New 
England states, who were known to be opposed to the war. 
The British thought that the New Englanders might be 
induced to secede from the United States and possibly form 
a union with the British provinces in Canada. 

But these excellent plans all miscarried. At the begin- 
ning of 1814 their blockade was not effective; they had 
lost every chance of capturing Michigan and Ohio; their 
invasion of New York had been a failure; and they had 
not even been able to get an army into the Hudson valley. 
Moreover, the sailors from the very states which the British 
had hoped to see annexed to Canada had humbled the pride 
of the English navy. The world had been astonished at the 
fighting qualities of the Yankee sailors. 

During the year 1814, however, England, on account of 
the decline of Napoleon's power, was enabled to transfer 
many of Wellington's veteran troops to the seat of war in 
America. The British government now resolved on a vigor- 
ous prosecution of the war, and determined (1) to pnsh the 
contest along the entire Canadian border; (2) to effect the 
destruction of Washington ; and (3) to captui-e the city of 



284 



HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 



New Orleans, which would thereby give them control of the 
Mississippi Kiver. 

The Americans organized three campaigns to defeat their 
purpose. In the northern campaign the army of Niagara, 
under General Winfield Scott, won the battle of Chippewa 
and the more considerable one of Lundy's Lane. The army 
in the region of Lake Cham plain defeated a British army of 
invasion, fourteen thousand strong, under General Sir George 
Prevost, at Plattsburg. At the same time, Commodore 
MacDonough, in command of the American flotilla on the 
lake, repeated the brilliant exploit of Perry on Lake Erie in 

the previous year, driving 
the British fleet from 




Lake Champlain. This 
overwhelming defeat of 
P r e V s t reminded the 
British of Burgoyne's dis- 
astrous invasion and led 
tlie British government 
to consider the proposal 
of a treaty of peace. 

In August of this year 
a British fleet entered 
Chesapeake Bay, defeated 
the Americans at Bladens- 
burg, entered Washington, and burned the government build- 
ings. Returning to Baltimore, a land and naval force attacked 
that city, but the British were repulsed, — Baltimore being gal- 
lantly defended by the garrison at Fort McIIenry. During this 
bombardment of I'ort McHenry, Francis Scott Key composed 
"The Star-Spangled Banner" — the American national air. 

The British attack on New Orleans, though organized in 
1814, did not take place untilJanuary 8, 1815. On that day 
General Packenham, with an army of twelve thousand men, 
attacked the city, which was defended by General iVndrew 
Jackson with a militia force comprising but half that number. 



FIIOM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX )IS5 

So well planned was Jackson's defence that the British were 
repulsed with fearful slaughter, resulting in the death of 
General Packenham and the destruction of one-fourth of his 
army. The American loss in killed and wounded numbered 
but seventy-one. 

355. Treatyof Ghent— 1814.— Had there been an Atlantic 
cable at that time, the battle of New Orleans would not have 
been fought, — a treaty of peace had been signed two weeks 
previous at Ghent, Belgium (December 24, 1814). By the 
terms of the treaty, peace was established, all conquered 
territory restored, and the old questions of dispute between 
the two countries left just as they had been prior to the 
declaration of war. The British right of search and impress- 
ment, which was considered to have been the chief cause of 
the war, was not even referred to in the treaty, nor was its 
mention insisted upon by the American peace commissioners. 
However, that question had been satisfactorily settled on the 
sea by the American sailors themselves, and the right has 
since never been insisted upon by the British government. 

356. The Hartford Convention and the Federalist Party — 
Dec. 15, 1814. — The Federalists in New England had from 
the beginning opposed the issue of war. At the close of the 
year 1814, these states, suffering from a complete destruc- 
tion of their commerce, were outspoken in their demand for 
peace. Delegates from Massachusetts, lihode Island, and 
Connecticut met in Hartford in secret convention on Decem- 
ber 15, 1814, for the purpose of protesting against the war 
policy of the administration. Before their adjournment a 
false rumor was circulated that New England was threaten- 
ing secession. While it is now known that no such unpatri- 
otic course was contemplated, still such credence was given 
to the rumor at the time as to bring upon the New England 
Federalists the greatest odium. The unwise course of this 
convention resulted in the complete downfall of the Fed- 
eralist party. 

357. Results of the War. — Notwithstanding the spirit 



286 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

revealed in the Hartford Convention, American confidence 
and national pride had steadily increased. The little Ameri- 
can navy had commanded the respect of the nations of the 
world. And — greatest gain of all — the United States had 
permanently separated her political affairs from all connec- 
tion with the politics of Europe. 

However, the war also left its evil effects. The govern- 
ment was confronted with a public debt of $127,000,000, 
of which amount $80,000,000 was due to the war, American 
commerce had been destroyed, and great depression was felt 
in all lines of business — the finances of the country were 
in need of immediate attention. 

358. The Second Bank of the United States— 1816.— Con- 
sequently the first task of congress was to reconstruct the 
financial system. The charter of the First United States 
Bank having expired in 1811, congress had refused to 
recharter it. However, the state banks, which had taken its 
place, proved so unsatisfactory that the people at the close 
of the war demanded its renewal. Accordingly, in 1816, 
congress created the Second Bank of the United States, with 
a capital of $35,000,000^one-fifth of the amount of stock 
being held by the government. It was chartered for twenty 
years, and greatly aided in restoring the finances of the 
country to a normal condition. 

369. Tariff of 1816: The "Protective Tariff."— The manu- 
facturing interests of the United States also demanded 
immediate attention. During the war, manufacturing indus- 
tries had been extensively established, especially in the 
northern states. When trade was reopened with Great Brit- 
ain at the close of the war, that nation flooded the country 
with English manufactures of all descriptions. Wherever 
these came in competition with home manufactures, the cor- 
responding English goods were sold at a price below the cost 
of making the same in America. The manufacturing indus- 
tries being thus threatened with destruction, the tariff bill of 
181G was passed to meet the emergency. Its purpose being 



FKOM WASHIXGTON TO JACKSON" 287 

not only to raise a revenue, but especially to protect home 
manufactures, it was called the "protective tariff." 

360. Decatur and the Algerine War — 1815. — During the 
war with England the pirates of the Barbary states again 
began preying upon American commerce. As soon as the 
war was closed the United States dispatched Commodore 
Decatur with a fleet of ten ships with instructions to bring 
the pirate states to terms. Decatur compelled the Dey of 
Algiers to sign a treaty on the deck of the American flag- 
ship, by which the Dey agreed to demand no more tribute 
money of the United States, and to pay for all seizures made 
in violation of the previous treaty. Similar submission 
being exacted of Tunis and Tripoli, no further trouble was 
experienced from the pirate states. 

361. New States: Louisiana— 1812; Indiana — 1816. — In 
this administration, Louisiana was admitted to the union as 
the eighteenth state, with a constitution permitting slavery; 
and Indiana, as the nineteenth state, with a constitution 
prohibiting slavery. 

362. The Third Census— 1810.— The third census, taken 
in 1810, showed that the United States had a total popula- 
tion of 7,215,791 — an increase of thirty-six and one-half per 
cent over the population of 1800. Of this population, 
1,191,364 were slaves — 27,510 in the north, the remainder 
in the south. 

363. Presidential Election of 1816.— The last two years of 
Madison's administration had seen the country happy and 
prosperous, and the Democratic-Republicans restored to the 
confldence of the peo^ile. The Federalist party, under the 
odium of the Hartford Convention, was making its last 
feeble struggle, and counted but little in the election of 1816. 
James Monroe, candidate of the Democratic-Republican 
party, was elected president, receiving one hundred eighty- 
three votes in the electoral college to thirty-four cast for 
Rufus King, candidate of the Federalists. Daniel D. Tomp- 
kins of New York was elected vice-president. 



288 history of the united states 

Monroe's administration 

DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN: lS17-m5 

364. James Monroe, fifth president of the United States, 
had been intimately connected with the public life of Amer- 
ica since the days of the struggle for independence. At the 
age of eighteen, he left William and Mary College to join 
Washington's army. He studied law under Thomas Jeffer- 
son, whose influence had much to do with his early advance- 
ment. He was a member of the Virginia assembly, a 
delegate to the Continental Congress, and a member of the 
Virginia Convention to decide upon the adoption of the consti- 
tution. He was one of the first United States senators from 
Virginia. He was appointed minister to France by AVash- 
ington. Upon his return he was elected governor of Vir- 
ginia. During Jefferson's administration he was again 
appointed minister to France, and later minister to Spain, 
and still later to Great Britain. As special envoy to 
France, he assisted in negotiating the purchase of Louisiana 
in 1803. On his return, he again became governor of Vir- 
ginia, from which office he was called to Madison's cabinet 
as secretary of state. 

The second term of Monroe's administration is known as 
the "Era of Good Feeling," party lines disappearing alto- 
gether. When Monroe was reelected in 1820 there was but 
one vote cast against him in the electoral college, and tradi- 
tion has it that this single adverse vote was given to John 
Quincy Adams in order that the honor of a unanimous 
election to the presidency might belong to Washington alone. 
The years after his retirement to private life were spent 
partly at his old home in Virginia, and partly in New York 
city, where he died July 4, 1831. He was born in Virginia 
in 1758. 

365. The Seminole War, and the Purchase of Florida — 
1819. — During the War of 1812 the Seminole Indians in 
Florida had aided the British. These Indians, during the 



FKOM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 289 

years 1817 and 1818, had continued to make raids into 
Georgia and Alabama. After a raid it was their custom to 
retire across the border into the Spanish province of Florida. 
Here they felt secure from attack, — due to the fact that they 
had been told that the United States troops would not dare 
to follow them into Spanish territory. It was believed in 
the United States that the Seminoles were incited to insur- 
rection by a few English adventurers and by the Spanish 
authorities in Florida. 

After several failures to quell the Indians, the government 
dispatched General Andrew Jackson to the seat of the war, 
with instructions to bring the savages to submission, even if he 
had to pursue them across the Florida border. Jackson, 
always a stern and self-willed man, though cautioned not to 
interfere with the Spanish authorities, felt, after his arrival 
on the Florida frontier, that he knew better how to settle the 
difficulty than did the government at Washington. Accord- 
ingly, he advanced into Florida and forced the Spaniards to 
abandon one post and later captured their stronghold at 
Pensacola. He also captured two British adventurers, 
whom he court-martialed and hanged. Jackson's action pro- 
duced great excitement throughout the United States, but 
both the president and congress approved his course. 

The Spanish government protested, but the United States, 
holding Spain partly accountable for the Seminole insurrec- 
tion, insisted upon its right to protect its own citizens. The 
king of Spain, feeling that it would cost more to defend 
Florida than the province was worth, offered to sell it to the 
United States. Negotiations were at once entered upon by 
which the United States came into undisputed possession of 
East and West Florida, by the payment to Spain of 
$5,000,000. 

366. New States Admitted: Mississippi — 1817; Illinois— 
1818; Alabama— 1819; Maine— 1820; Missouri— 1821.— Five 
states were admitted to the union in this administration — 
Mississippi as the twentieth in 1817 ; Illinois as the twenty- 



290 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

first in 1818; Alabama as the twenty-second in 1819; Maine 
as the twenty-third in 1820; and Missouri as the twenty- 
fourth In 1821. The constitutions of Mississippi, Alabama, 
and Missouri permitted slavery, while Illinois and Maine 
came into the union as free states. 

367. The Missouri Compromise— 1820. — Up to the time of 
this administration the question of slavery had not come 
prominently before congress. Since the time of the admis- 
sion of Vermont, a slave and a free state had been admitted 
alternately into the union — thereby preserving the balance 
of power between the free and the slave states. In 1819 Mis- 
souri and Arkansas were organized as separate territories 
without any restriction on the question of slavery. This 
arrangement was opposed in the north, where it was deter- 
mined that all states formed out of the Louisiana Territory 
should be admitted as free states. When Missouri applied 
for admission to the union in 1820 with a constitution per- 
mitting slavery, her admission was therefore bitterly opposed 
in the north. At this time the free state of Maine was also 
asking for admission. The shiveholding states now opposed 
the admission of Maine, unless Missouri should be admitted 
as a slave state. 

The debates in congress were heated in the extreme, and 
the whole country became involved in the controversy. The 
result was a compromise between the opposing parties, 
known as the "Missouri Compromise." This was an act 
passed by congress March 3, 1820, admitting the two states — 
one free and the other slave; and farther providing that 
slavery should be forever ■excluded from the territory lying 
north of the parallel — 36° 30' (the state of Missouri 
excepted) — the line corresponded to the southern boundary 
of Missouri. The question of slavery in the territory south 
of that line was to be left to the people as they might deter- 
mine. 

Through the Missouri Compromise, the contest on the ques- 
tion of slavery was postponed for another quarter of a century- 



PKOM WASlllXGTOX TO JACKSOX 291 

368. The Monroe Doctrine— 1823.— At about the time of 
the purchase of Florida, nearly all the Spanish provinces in 
South America were in open revolt against Spain, and later 
even Mexico declared her independence. The United States 
acknowledged these revolted provinces as sovereign states. 

At this time all the monarchs of Europe, except those of 
Rome and England, had formed a league known as the 
*'Holy Alliance," the avowed object of which was to protect 
each sovereign in his own territorial and political rights, and 
to prevent interference with his system of government. 
Spain was a member of the Holy Alliance, and it was now 
rumored that she would receive its support in suppressing 
the revolt in her American provinces. 

Monroe, in anticipation of such an event, served notice 
(through his annual message to congress in 1823) on the 
members of the Holy Alliance that they must not interfere 
in American affairs. In his message he set forth the doc- 
trine that "the American continents, by the free and inde- 
pendent condition which they have assumed and maintain, 
are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future 
colonization by any European powers"; and that the United 
States should consider any attempt on the part of any 
foreign power to extend its system of government to any por- 
tion of this hemisphere, as dangerous to the peace and safety 
of the United States. He also intimated that while the 
United States would raise no objection against any colony or 
dependency then existing in America, yet any further 
intrusion or interference on the part of any foreign power 
would be regarded as "the manifestation of an unfriendly 
spirit towards the United States." 

This declaration has ever since been known, both in the 
j)olitics and diplomacy of the United States, as the "Monroe 
Doctrine." Its effect was to check the Holy Alliance in 
their proposed intervention, and Great Britain at once 
acknowledged the independence of the Spanish republics. 

369. The Tariff of 1824: Internal Improvements.— In 1824 



292 HISTORY or the united states 

a new tariff law was passed which increased the duties on 
metals and agricultural products. Henry Clay was its great 
champion. This tariff bill, more than any previous bill, 
combined the two ideas of the raising of a revenue and the 
protecting of home industries. To quote Clay's words, 
"The object of this bill is to create a home market and to 
lay the foundation of a genuine American policy." 

Up to this time, the leaders of the "loose construction" 
party had been persistent in their efforts to induce the gov- 
ernment to make appropriations for internal improvements, — 
such as national roads and canals. Jefferson, Madison, and 
Monroe, while in favor of such improvements, had opposed 
all appropriations on constitutional grounds. Clay, in advo- 
cating the tariff of 1824, insisted that it would raise suffi- 
cient revenue to enable the government to undertake a 
system of internal improvements. The passing of this tariff 
act practically settled this question. Soon thereafter con- 
gress, by a decided vote, declared itself in favor of a national 
canal system, whereupon the "strict constructionists" 
gradually ceased their opposition on constitutional grounds 
to aj^propriations for sucli purposes. 

370. The Fourth Census— 1820.— The fourth census dis- 
closed the fact that the United States had a population of 
9,638,191, of which 1,538,125 were slaves— 10,108 in the 
north, the remainder in the south. This reveals the fact 
that emancipation north of Mason and Dixon's line was 
being rapidly accomplished. 

371. The Presidential Election of 1824.— At the close of 
Monroe's administration the "Era of Good Feeling" came to 
an end. The Federalist party being dead, the Democratic- 
Republican party now broke up into factions. Four men, 
representing the separate factions of the Democratic-Eepub- 
lican party, became candidates for the presidency. John 
Quincy Adams, Monroe's secretary of state, represented the 
New England faction, and was nominated by the legislature 
of Massachusetts; William H. Crawford of Georgia received 



FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 293 

the nomination of the party caucus in congress; Henry Clay 
was nominated by the legislatures of Kentucky and four 
other states; and Andrew Jackson was nominated by the 
legislatures of Tennessee and Pennsylvania. 

Prior to this campaign, candidates for president had always 
been nominated by a party caucus composed of the members 
of congress. This plan had of late been bitterly assailed by 
the people in all sections of the country — with the result 
indicated above. Crawford was the last of the congressional 
caucus nominees for the presidency. Candidates were for a 
few years nominated by the state legislatures and later by 
national nominating conventions. 

In the election of 1825, no candidate having a majority of 
all the votes, the election under the constitution was decided 
by the house of representatives, which chose John Quincy 
Adams president. John C. Calhoun was the choice of the 
electoral college for vice-president. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 

NA TIONA L-REPUBLICAN: 1825-1829 

372. John Cluincy Adams, sixth president of the United 

States, was the eldest son of John Adams, the second president. 
He was a graduate of Harvard College, in which institution he 
afterwards held the chair of professor of rhetoric. He was 
an able lawyer, and a diplomat of distinguished ability. He 
served as minister to each of the four countries, Holland, 
Prussia, Eussia, and England, and assisted in negotiating the 
treaty of Ghent. He was a United States senator from Mas- 
sachusetts, and for- eight years was Monroe's secretary of 
state. 

Though a Federalist in politics, Adams, at the time of the 
Embargo Act, became estranged from his party and gave his 
support to the Democratic-Republican party until his elec- 
tion to the presidency. He then united with Henry Clay in 
forming the National Republican party. And yet iVdams 
was not a strict party man; he was, rather, a representative 



294 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the *' independent" in politics. He favored a protective 
tariff, and internal improvements at government expense. 
Though the country prospered, his administration was a 
stormy one, owing to the bitter attacks of his enemies in 
congress, and due, also, to his unbending and pugnacious 
character. Yet few administrations have been marked by 
greater intelligence or loftier patriotism. 

Adams failed of reelection to the presidency in 1828, but 
three years later was elected to congress as an independent 
member from the state of Massachusetts, in which body he 
served until the day of his death. Shortly after his return 
to congress, the house of representatives, through the 
influence of the southern members, passed a rule known as 
the "gag rule" (1836), forbidding any member presenting 
petitions to congress in any way referring to the slavery 
question. Adams insisted that this was an infringement of 
the "right of petition" as granted in the constitution, and 
with all his powers of eloquence fought the rule for nine 
years in every conceivable manner, and finally triumphed, the 
"gag rule" being repealed in 1845. 

Three years later (February 21, 1848) Adams was stricken 
with apoplexy while occupying his seat on the floor of the 
house. He died two days later with the words on his lips, 
"This is the last of earth; I am content." He was born in 
Braintree, Massachusetts, in 17G7. He died in his eighty- 
first year. On account of his eloquent defence of the "right 
of petition," he was known as the "Old Man Eloquent." 

373. Visit of Lafayette. — On the invitation of congress, 
Lafayette, now aged and grey, visited America in the years 
1824 and 1825, and made a tour of the American states. 
Old memories were revived, and the days of the Revolution 
were recalled, as Lafayette passed through the states on a 
journey of triumph. He was greeted by the remnant of 
the soldiers of the Revolution and by the heroes of a later 
day, with a warmth and devotion that has seldom been 
excelled. Remembering his services in the struggle for inde- 



FROM WASHI^^GT0:N^ to JACKSON 



295 



pendence, congress voted him a township of land in Florida, 
a large sum of money, and built the frigate Brandywine, as 
a special ship to carry him on his homeward voyage to 
France. 

374. Death of Adams and Jefferson July 4, 1826.— On the 
very day on which the republic was celebrating its fiftieth 
anniversary, July 4, 1826, John Adams and Thomas Jeffer- 
son died. These two great men had stood side by side dur- 
ing the perilous days of the Kevolution. Jefferson had 
written the Declaration, and Adams by his eloquence had 
done more than all others to secure its adoption. In their 
political life they had become estranged during the adminis- 
tration of Washington, but in later years the earlier friend- 
shi]3 had been renewed. Adams died at the age of ninety ; 
Jefferson, at the age of eighty. Both were mourned by an 
entire nation. A eulogy, pronounced by Daniel Webster on 
the lives and services of these two men, ranks among the 
classic utterances of that great orator. 

376. The Erie Canal— 1825.— The Erie Canal, begun in 
1817 , was completed in 1825. It connected the Hudson 




THE ERIE CANAIi 



River, through the Mohawk valley, with Lake Erie at 
Buffalo. Its length was three hundred and sixty-three 
miles. It was built by New York state at the suggestion of 
Governor De Witt Clinton, who at first had hoped to see it 
built at government expense. Like the Cumberland road, 



296 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

it contributed enormously to the development of the west, 
and to the growth and prosperity of New York city. That 
city now rapidly passed Philadelphia as a commercial center, 
and soon became the undisputed metropolis of America. 

Adams's administration marked a revival of interest in the 
building of canals — due, no doubt, to the completion of the 
Erie Canal. These artificial waterways were usually built at 
the expense of the several states concerned, though congress 
made appropriations of money and granted several million 
acres of land to aid in such enterprises. Interest in canal 
construction ceased about the year 1840, when the era of the 
railroad began. 

376. Steamboats. — No sooner had Fulton demonstrated his 
success with his Clermont than steamboat construction 
became a thriving business, the ferry boats at New York 
soon being propelled by steam. In 1819, the Savannah, the 
first ocean steamer, crossed the Atlantic. During Adams's 
administration steamboats came into general use, plying the 
waters of the Mississippi, the Ohio, the Great Lakes, and of 
nearly every navigable stream on the continent. In the year 
1840 the business of transportation as carried on by steam navi- 
gation had become enormous. At that time as many as forty- 
five hundred vessels passed Cairo, Illinois, in a single year. 
Many of these steamboats, however, were crude affairs. The 
government not yet having looked after the improvement of 
river channels, numerous accidents and disasters occurred, 
which led to a demand for better facilities for transportation, 
leading eventually to the perfected railroad. 

377. Railroads. — The first railroad hi the United States 
was but four miles long, and was built by Gridley Bryant, in 
1825, from Quincy, Massachusetts, to the nearest tidewater. 
This was followed two years later by a road built from the 
mines of Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, to the Lehigh Eiver. 
The question of transportation having laid deep hold upon 
the people, many railroads were projected during Adams's 
administration, which were afterwards successfully built. 



PROM WASHIIs^GTOK TO JACKSON" 



297 



Among these are the New York Central, Baltimore and Ohio, 
and the Boston and Albany. Before the close of Adams's 




AN EAKLY RAILROAD TRAIN 



administration the locomotive, invented by George Stephen- 
son, had come into use in America and thirty miles of railroad 
had been completed within the United States. 

Thus it will be seen that Adams's administration was the 
beginning of a new era in the industrial development of the 
republic. 

378. The Tariff of 1828, "The Tariff of Abominations. "—In 
1828 the question of the tariff was again before congress. 
The president and his friends favoring a higher tariff, a bill 
was passed by congress increasing the duties on fabrics made 
of wool, cotton, linen, and silk, as well as on articles manu- 
factured from lead and iron. The chief object of this bill 
was to raise the price of foreign goods and encourage more 
than ever the manufacturing industries of the United States. 
This bill became a "sectional issue" in congress, — the south- 
ern states, under the leadership of John C. Calhoun, bitterly 
opposing it, the middle and New England states favoring it. 
It was called by its opponents "The Tariff of Abominations." 

379. The Presidential Election of 1828.— The presidential 
election of 1828 was an exciting one. Adams, supported by 
Clay, was the candidate of the National-Republican party, 
which advocated government aid to internal improvements 
and protection to home industries, welcomed the new era of 
industrial development, and clung to the old Federalist 



298 HISTORY OF THE U:N'ITED STATES 

theory of *'loose construction." The Democratic-Republi- 
can party now dropped its hyphenated name, and became the 
Democratic party. It adhered to the principles of Jefferson, 
and nominated Andrew Jackson to succeed Adams. 

The contest was a personal rather than a political one. 
Adams was unpopular, while the name of Jackson, on 
account of his brilliant military exploits at New Orleans, 
Horseshoe Bend, and Pensacola, was greeted with enthusi- 
asm wherever mentioned. In the resulting election, Jack- 
son received one hundred seventy-eight of the electoral votes, 
and Adams, eighty-three. John 0. Calhoun was again 
elected vice-president. 



CHAPTER X 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 

i:89-lS'J9 

380. Development of Territory. — When Washington 
became the first president of the republic, the territorial 
extent of the United States was less than one-third of its 
present size. Forty years later, when John Quiiicy Adams 
became president, its territory had been pushed southward to 
the Gulf of Mexico by the purchase of the Floridas, and 
westward to the crest of the Rocky Mountains by the purchase 
of Louisiana. Flatboatmen could now float the products of 
the western farms down any of the streams between the 
Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains to New Orleans 
without paying foreign toll. New Orleans was now a city 
of the United States, and produce could be loaded on ocean 
vessels there without hindrance. A captain could sail along 
the coast from New Orleans to Maine, stopping at any point 
he chose, and always be under the protection of the United 
States flag. In the four decades since Washington the nation 
had also grown in numbers, in ideas, and in comforts. 

POPULATION^ 

381. Numbers. — Since the inauguration of Washington a 
census had been taken every ten years beginning with 1790, 
for the purpose of having one representative in congress for 
a certain designated number of people. In this way each 
citizen had a share in the government of the nation through 
the congressman elected from his congressional district. By 
comparing the total number of people at each census we may 
measure the growth of population. Thus, for every person 
in the United States, when the first census was taken, in 
1790, there were three persons in 1830. In forty years the 



300 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



population had trebled. Much of this growth was due to 
immigration from European countries. To the small farm- 
ers of Europe the United States offered many inducements 
of rich soil, and to the laboring class, abundant opportunity 
to labor. The number of foreign immigrants increased 
rapidly from year to year, although varying somewhat with 
the years of scarcity of food in Europe and the years of 
plenty in America. The annual number of immigrants 
arriving in the United States had increased from 8,000 in 
1820, to 23,000 in 1830. 

POPULATION BY STATES 





1790 


1800 


1810 


1820 


1830 


New Hampshire 

Massachusetts 

Rhode Island 


141,885 
378,787 

68,825 
237,946 
340,120 
184,139 
434,373 

59,096 
319,728 
747,610 
393.751 
249,073 

82,548 


183,858 
422,845 

69,122 
251,002 
589,051 
211,149 
602,365 

64,273 
341,548 
880,200 
478,103 
345,591 
162,686 
154,465 
220,955 
105,603 


214,460 
472,040 

76,931 
261,942 
959,049 
245.563 
810,091 

72.674 
380,546 
947,600 
555,500 
415,115 
253,433 
217.895 
406.511 
261,727 
230,760 


244.022 

523,159 

83,015 

275,148 

1,372,114 

277,426 

1,047,507 

72,749 

407,3.50 

1,065,116 

638.829 

502,741 

340.985 

235,966 

564.135 

422.7?1 

581,295 

152,923 

147,178 

75.448 

.55,162 

14,255 

298,269 


269,328 

610,408 

97,199 


Connecticut 

New York 


297,675 
1 918 608 




320,823 
1 348 233 


Pennsylvania 


Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 


76,748 

447,040 

1,211,405 

737.987 
581,185 
516.823 
280,653 
687 917 


Kentucky 








681 904 


Ohio 




937 903 


T,mii<siana. 






215 739 


Indiana 








343 031 


Mississippi 








136 6-'l 


Illinois 








157 445 


Alabama . . 








30 388 


Maine 








399,455 


Missouri 








140,4.55 















AVhen the first census was taken, nearly all the people 
lived between the Alleghany Mountains and the Atlantic 
Ocean. Only five out of every hundred of the total 
population had crossed the mountains, and most of these 
lived in what are now the states of Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee. As better roads were built through the mountain 
gaps and along the mountain streams, more and more 
settlers crossed to the fertile lands of the Mississippi 
valley. A glance at tlio map will show that tlie water- 



GROWTH OP THE REPUBLIC 301 

ways flowing east and west are far more numerous than 
those running north and south. These streams were 
in that early day the ready-made roads for the pioneers. 
And, too, the first settlers in a new country usually settle 
along the courses of these streams. These waterways were 
numerous in the north and thus it was that the northern 
section increased more rapidly in population and created 
states faster than did the southern section. 

382. Growth of Cities. — One thing every census of this 
middle period showed — that the people of the United States 
were not always to be "American farmers," as the colonists 
had been called. With the growth of manufactures, the 
people were beginning to live in cities where the factories 
and workshops were located. In Europe the people lived 
for the most part in cities and villages and hence many 
immigrants were wont to make their homes in cities when 
they came to America. In Washington's time only three 
people out of every hundred lived in cities; and in John 
Quincy Adams's administration, only five out of every hun- 
dred dwelt in a city. It took a long time for people to 
learn how to pave and light their streets properly, to lay 
out parks, to erect statues, and to make the beautiful cities 
which are so numerous throughout the republic of the 
present day. 

RELATIVE RANK OF TEN LEADING CITIES 

1790 1810 1830 

1. New York 33,131 1. New York 96,373 1. New York.... 197, 112 

2. PhiladelpMa .... 28,522 2. Philadelphia .... 53,722 2. Baltimore .... 80,620 

3. Boston 18,038 3. Baltimore 46,555 3. Philadelphia. 80,462 

4. Charleston 16,359 4. Boston 33,250 4. Boston 61,392 

5. Baltimore 13,503 5. Charleston 24,71 1 5. Charleston . . . 30,289 

6. Providence 6,380 6. New Orleans .... 17.242 6. New Orleans. 29,737 

7. Richmond 3,761 7. Albany 10,762 7. Cincinnati. . . . 24,831 

8. Albany 3,498 8. Providence 10,071 8. Albany 24,2i)9 

9. New Bedford ... . 3,313 9. Richmond 9,736 9. Wa.shington.. 18,826 

10. Lynn 2,291 10. Washington 8,208 10. Providence. . . 16,833 

SOCIAL LIPE 

383. Manner of Living. — As the people began to have bet- 
ter means of travel and to go more frequently from one sec- 



302 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tion to another, they began to lose the differences of dress 
and customs of colonial days and to assume national charac- 
teristics. There always remained, however, a difference in 
daily life between the New Englander, with his modest 
house, his cool manner toward strangers, and his devotion to 
business, and the hospitable southern planter, with the door 
of his great plantation house always open to strangers, and 
his determination to get some enjoyment out of life. The 
southerner thouglit the northerner cared only for money, 
and the northerner called the southerner a spendthrift. 
One in traveling saw also a vast difference between the people 
of the east and of the west. In the eastern states the people 
had easier lives, more wealth, and more leisure for study 
and enjoyment. In the newer western states, the "pioneers," 
as the first settlers were called, had to cut down the forests, 
to clear fields, and build cabins. They were poor and had 
often to borrow from the people of the east. This life was 
severe, but it taught people to endure, to be brave, and not 
to be ashamed to labor. Thus the new west gave to the 
older east vigor and crude manhood, and received from it 
civilization, art, and knowledge. The frontier produced such 
men as Daniel Boone, David Crockett, Andrew Jackson and 
Abraham Lincoln. 

384. Religion. — Many had feared that some attempt would 
be made to fasten a particular kind of church upon the 
United States. They thought that the government^ should 
not try to make people attend any church or believe any 
creed ; but should allow each an opportunity of doing what 
his conscience prompted. Washington, when he became 
president, wrote a number of letters to various religious 
denominations, to assure them that the government would 
not interfere with anyone in his religious belief. Under this 
freedom, the various churches prospered, and extended them- 
selves with the spread of the people. Since the Established 
church was strongest in the south, its descendant, the 
Episcopal church, remained the leading church in that sec- 



GROWTH Oi<' THE KEFUBLIC 303 

tion, although the Baptist church, which originated in 
Khode Island, spread rapidly in the southern states. Like- 
wise, the Congregational church, the offspring of the early 
Puritans, went with the New England people wherever they 
have settled in the northern states. The Presbyterian 
church, which had been strongest in the middle colonies, 
spread both north and south, as did the Methodist church, 
which reached America just before the Re\^olution. Under 
the constitution, the Roman Catholic church enjoyed a free- 
dom which it never experienced in the colonies under Protes- 
tant England. With all this toleration from the government, 
the various sects began to tolerate each other and to prepare 
for the good feeling which now exists between denominations 
in the United States. 

385. Mode of Travel. — As the people spread over the con- 
tinent, better means of travel became necessary. Private 
companies were organized to build turnpikes on which tolls 
were charged. Some states undertook to build roads. The 
national government began the Cumberland National road. 
Over these turnpikes ran regular stage-coach lines, passing 
heavy freight wagons drawn by four or six horses. Companies, 
given charters by the different states to dig canals from one 
waterway to another, started to connect the Hudson with 
the Delaware, the Delaware with Chesapeake Bay, the Hud- 
son with Lake Erie, and Lake Erie with the Ohio River. 
The national government gave millions of dollars for clear- 
ing the channels of rivers from snags and sandbars. In 
Jefferson's administration the first line of steamboats was 
started between New York and Albany. Jnst before the 
war of 1812, steamboats were built on the Great Lakes. 
Soon every navigable river and all the lakes had many lines 
of steamers carrying passengers and freight. When a river 
could not be made navigable, a canal was constructed beside 
it. Thus the Susquehanna and the Potomac canals were 
built. Just before John Quincy Adams went out of office, a 
railroad was begun at Baltimore. When people could go by 



304 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



a railroad, they would no longer choose a stage coach or canal 
boat. It meant a new era of travel and trade. 

EDUCATION 

386. Public Schools and Colleges. — The public schools in 
colonial days had to compete with many private schools. Also, 
since they were supported at public expense, many looked 
upon them as a kind of charity. But in the newer states, 
the people were poor and could not support private schools. 
Thus the public school system grew in numbers and in dignity. 
People began to see that all children, both rich and poor, 
ought to have the advantage of an education. The public 
land granted by the United States in the Ordinance of 1787 
helped to this end. The early idea of education which 
limited knowledge to a few subjects was broadened by put- 
ting into the schools such subjects as chemistry and "natural 
philosophy," which we now call physics. The course of 
study in the schools of the lower grades was made much 
more interesting than formerly, and school books had begun 
to improve, although Noah Webster's old "blue back 
speller," first printed in 1783, held its own. Thousands of 
this little book are still sold to-day. Since 1783 its sales 
have reached into the millions. This book was the fore- 
runner of Webster's dictionary, first published in 1806 — a 
book which has had a powerful influence in welding the 
American nation into a people of one language. 

The Ordinance of 1787 also gave land for colleges, and 
two of these were opened in Ohio before 1825. Thus 
was begun our present system of state colleges and state 
universities. The graduates of the church colleges also 
established other colleges in the newer states as the 
people moved westward. These sectarian colleges were 
founded to train young men for the ministry of the various 
denominations, but they gradually opened their doors to 
anyone desirous of gaining an education. These newer 
colleges began to allow women as well as men to attend. 



1 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 305 

387. Literature. — When political parties developed during 
Washington's second administration, they caused a rapid 
increase in the number of newspapers. These papers were 
small and had no way of getting general news. The editors 
were very abusive in their political writings. The people 
generally read magazines containing abstract essays and sen- 
timental poetry. The few books read were imported from 
the old world. About 1820, the people seemed to have 
accomplished their first work of clearing the forests and had 
leisure for intellectual affairs. Washington Irving began to 
write his delightful sketches and James Fenimore Cooper 
to write his novels. These two authors with some minor 
writers made the beginning of an American literature. 

OCCUPATIONS 

388. Agriculture, Fishing, and Commerce. — In colonial 
days, agriculture was followed in the fertile lands of the 
southern states. The people of New England on a rocky soil 
were obliged to turn fishermen and sailors. In making the 
treaty with England at the close of the Revolutionary war, 
John Adams, a New Englander, had insisted on the Ameri- 
cans sharing the cod fisheries of Newfoundland with the 
Canadians. His son, John Quincy Adams, had insisted upon 
the same right in making the treaty at the close of the second 
war with England. On the steeple of the statehouse in 
Boston was a weathervane in the shape of a gilded codfish to 
show the value of the fisheries. The trading and ship-build- 
ing interests of New England and the middle states con- 
tinued to grow. 

389. Growth of Manufactures. — The rocky soil of New 
England and the northern states, although preventing farm- 
ing on a large scale, proved a blessing in the end. The 
falls in the rivers such as those at Fall Eiver, Massachusetts, 
and at Passaic, New Jersey, — the result of the broken and 
uneven surface of the region through which those streams 
ran, — early turned attention to manufacturing. Water- 



30G HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

wheels were harnessed to these falls, and made to run 
machinery. Corn and wheat were ground into flour, and 
gradually cloth was woven, nails made, iron rolled, and 
various manufactures begun. Washington set a good exam- 
ple by wearing when he was inaugurated, clothing made 
entirely in the United States. Yet the people had been 
so long dependent on Europe that American goods became 
the fashion very slowly. It needed the war of 1812, which 
shut out European goods, to develop home factories. Soon 
every available river fall was pressed into service to aid in 
the upbuilding of home industries, such as the "protective 
tariff" laws were passed to protect. In 1821, some men 
went to a rapid place in the Merrimac River, built a 
dam, and established the manufacturing town of Lowell, 
which soon grew into a great city. With the discovery of 
the great coal fields which underlie most of the northern 
states, steam power began to aid and even to supersede 
water power. 

NATION^AL DEFENCE 

390. Army and Navy. — After the Revolutionary war had 
closed, the army was disbanded, only a few troops being 
retained to guard the frontier settlements against the 
Indians. There was no need of a standing army such as 
European nations are obliged to maintain because of 
powerful neighbors. A standing army is also a heavy 
burden to the taxpayers, and is contrary to the idea of 
self-government. By an act of congress under the con- 
stitution, the army was put on a permanent basis of 
only a little more than a thousand men and officers. Each 
state was expected to keep a militia, consisting of men 
who were drilled occasionally and could go to war when it 
was necessary, but who did not have to be clothed, fed, and 
paid all the time, as did the regular soldiers. Most of the 
fighting in the Indian campaigns, as well as the war of 1812, 
was done by the militiamen from the different states. 
After the close of the war of 1812, the regular army was not 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 307 

reduced to the former standing because troops were needed in 
the western and southern forts to guard settlers against the 
Indians. Andrew Jackson had been a general in the regular 
army, and was known as an "Indian fighter." 

A nayy, like an army, is a heavy expense. After 
the close of the Revolutionary war, the navy had been 
abandoned. The last vessel, the Alliance, was sold because 
there was no money to make repairs. But the experience 
with the Mediterranean pirates a few years later showed 
that any nation which expects to have an ocean trade 
must have a navy to defend it. Six vessels were begun in 
1794, named the Constitution, the United States, the Chesa- 
peake, the President, the Constellation,, and the Congress. 
Four were finished and made the beginning of our present 
great navy. The war of 1812 found the United States 
unprepared. During the war, our navy at one time was 
reduced to three frigates; but others were added as rapidly 
as they could be built. Also private vessels were enlisted as 
war vessels, from which they were called "privateers." 
They did the best service, and really won the war. Only 
sufficient vessels were maintained after the war to help keep 
the African slave-trade down and to aid scientific investiga- 
tion. 

POLITICAL LIFE 

391. Growth of Popular Government. — What we now 
know as politics, — that is, the right and duty of each 
citizen to bear his share of public affairs, — were developed 
slowly as time went on. In the old world, government 
had been generally in the hands of a few men like kings 
or princes, who managed the state for the people. There 
was no pattern for a republic, such as our fathers planned 
in the constitution, embracing such a large territory and 
so many people. It was natural that statesmen should 
differ in opinion upon the manner of conducting the 
republic. Jefferson, for instance, believed that the people 
as a whole should be allowed to manage affairs as they 



308 HISTORY OF THE UXITEl) STATES 

thought best; others, like Hamilton, feared that the people, 
if left to themselves, would go too far and breed revolution. 
John Adams thought this could be prevented by the people 
choosing the "well-born" to fill the offices and to conduct 
the government for them. 

Since ideas of government had been derived from the 
old world, the people at first were kept out of a com- 
plete control in several ways. They were not allowed 
to vote directly for a president, but chose a set of electors 
who would select the best man in the United States for 
president. Very early the people learned to choose electors 
who were pledged to vote for a certain candidate. The 
name of the candidate was printed over the list of electors. 
In this way the people really vote directly for the president, 
although that was not what the framers of the con- 
stitution had planned. About President Jackson's time, 
national nominating conventions were invented, which are held 
to this day to select candidates for the presidency. About 
the same time, the number of people entitled to vote was 
greatly increased. The feeling that the government was 
instituted for the protection of property was so strong that, 
when the first constitutions were adopted which changed the 
colonies into states, no one was allowed to vote who did not 
own a certain amount of land or pay a certain amount of 
taxes. The constitutions adopted by the new states when 
they were admitted to the union allowed all white men over 
twenty-one to vote, and the constitutions of the older states 
were gradually changed to this qualification. 



CHAPTER XI 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 

lfi29-1801 

Jackson's administration 

DEMOCRATIC: JK20-1H37 

392. Andrew Jackson, the seventh president of the United 
States, was the son of a farmer. He had been a member of 
congress, a United States senator from Tennessee, and a 
justice on the supreme bench of that state. He won his 
great popularity in the wars against the Creek and Seminole 
Indians, and in the crushing defeat of the British at the 
battle of New Orleans. It being due to his course in the 
Seminole war that the United States had won Florida, he 
was appointed the first governor of that territory. 

As president, he revived Jefferson's plan of removal of 
political opponents from office, and during the first year of 
his administration dismissed nearly seven hundred officehold- 
ers — ten times as many as had been removed in all the 
previous history of the government, lie thus surrounded 
himself with his personal friends and impressed his strong 
character upon his administration. 

Though Jackson was an unpolished man, and little skilled 
in the science of government, he possessed such native 
ability and inflexible honesty as to make him personally 
popular with the masses and the idol of his party. He came 
to the presidency as a military hero, and many had fears for 
the government under his administration. Yet he aston- 
ished his party and the country by the vigorous manner in 
which he upheld the government. His stern and rugged 



310 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

character endeared him to the people and won for him the 
popular nickname of "Old Hickory." He served two 
terms as president, being reelected in 1832, with Martin Van 
Buren as vice-president, by a vote of two hundred nineteen 
to forty-nine cast for Henry Clay, the candidate of the 
National-Republican party. When he retired from office, 
imitating the example of Washington he issued a farewell 
address to his countrymen, in which he vigorously set forth 
the dangers of sectionalism, the horrors of disunion, and 
pleaded with the American people to stand by the Amer- 
ican union as the last fortress of human liberty. 

When he retired to private life at The Hermitage — his 
home near Nashville — he still continued to be the leader of 
his party. He was born in North Carolina in 1767, and died 
at The Hermitage in 1845. 

393. Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet." — Though Jackson 
selected the usual presidential cabinet, there was but one 
strong man in it — Martin Van Biiren, secretary of state. 
Jackson, feeling the need of political advisers, surrounded 
himself by a few personal friends, selected from outside of 
his cabinet, who had access at all times to the executive 
mansion. It was soon discovered that these men, some of 
whom held subordinate positions under the administration, 
had great influence in the securing of appointments as well 
as in assisting the president in outlining his policy of admin- 
istration. Jackson's enemies, perceiving this state of affairs, 
ridiculed his repudiation of his cabinet, by designating his 
"personal coterie" as the "kitchen cabinet." 

394. The Spoils System: "Rotation in Office." — Jackson 
began his administration by the wholesale removal of office- 
holders. In order to have more vacancies at his command 
he now, for the first time, took into the presidential cabinet 
the postmaster-general— a movement which enabled him to 
secure control of the postoffice appointments. In politics 
he was a firm believer in the rule that "to the victor belong 
the spoils." As an excuse for his course, he referred to 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 311 

Jefferson, and is quoted as saying, "I am too old a soldier to 
leave the garrison in the hands of my enemies." 

He did not hesitate to reduce the whole system of presi- 
dential appointments to partisan purposes. He believed in 
rewarding those who had worked for his election and pun- 
ishing those who had not. 

His policy was in marked contrast to that of his prede- 
cessor, John Quincy Adams, who, during his entire adminis- 
tration, removed but two officeholders for political reasons. 
The spoils system has, since Jackson's time, been a regular 
feature of American politics. Those in favor of efficiency in 
the "Civil Service" have, in later years, opposed its evils by 
insisting on "Civil Service Reform." 

395. The Overthrow of the United States Bank.— In the 
very first year of his administration Jackson began a warfare 
on the United States Bank, although its charter would not 
expire until the year 1836. He held that the institution was 
unconstitutional and dangerous to the government, in that 
its management had become implicated in politics. So 
active was he in opposing the bank, that its friends came 
forward in 1832 and passed a bill through congress providing 
for its recharter. This Jackson promptly vetoed, — thus 
sealing the fate of the bank. 

The next year he directed the secretary of the treasury to 
order that the $10,000,000 then on deposit in the bank be drawn 
upon to discharge the government's expenses and that no 
further deposits be made therein. This order further directed 
that all future government deposits be made in certain state 
banks. These later became known as Jackson's "pet banks. " 

The senate, under the leadership of Henry Clay, protested 
against Jackson's high-handed policy — even to the point of 
passing a vote of censure upon him — but to no purpose. 
Whether right or wrong, he pursued his course, and his per- 
sonal friend, Senator Thomas H. Benton of Missouri, saw to 
it, that before Jackson retired from office, the vote of 
censure was expunged from the records of the senate. 



312 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

396. Effect of the Bank's Overthrow. — Jackson's financial 
policy had been inaugurated at a time when the whole 
country was enjoying the greatest prosperity. The country 
was rapidly growing in population and increasing in material 
wealth. There was enough money in the treasury to pay the 
national debt. Commerce had just been restored with the 
West Indies. Canals and railroads had begun to solve the 
problem of cheaper and quicker trans]3ortation. Through 
Clay's influence the national Cumberland road had been 
completed into the state of Illinois. The new west was 
being rapidly settled. Internal improvements were being 
encouraged by state aid. The manufacturing industries had 
thrived. The volume of business had steadily increased. 
The whole country, active, and restless, was on the eve of an 
era of a speculation of the wildest and most disastrous sort. 

Jackson believed that the old bank had become a political 
machine, and therefore ought to be replaced by something 
better. But his methods were too heroic. The bank had 
been the stay of the public credit; it had been conservative, 
and had made safe loans. Now Jackson's "pet banks," 
located chiefly in the south and west, w^ere to be substituted 
for it. These deposit banks were creatures of favoritism, 
and were increasing at an alarming rate — due to political 
influence with the administration. Jackson had overthrown 
one "political machine"; he was now building up another. 
These "pet banks" flourished, and were for a time held in 
high favor. They issued paper money, large quantities of 
which they threw into circulation — even the government 
receiving this money in payment of its revenues. Private 
and state banks everywhere began to spring up — many 
of them absolutely without capital. Before the close of Jack- 
son's administration, as many as seven hundred of these 
banks had appeared, flooding the country with "rag money," 
as the paper currency was then called. 

397. Speculation. — As a result (1) of the distribution ol 
the public funds to the numerous "deposit banks," and (2) 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 313 

of the power of these banks to issue paper money of their 
own, money abounded everywhere and could be easily 
obtained — the banks desiring to make loans, and speculators 
wishing to borrow. 

This abundance of money gave the opportunity, and the 
whole country plunged into the wildest speculation — more 
banks were established; railroads and canals were projected 
and built — some projected and never built ; manufacturing 
plants were begun and never completed; *'boom towns" 
were platted "on paper," and lots sold at fabulous prices; 
enterprises of every conceivable sort were undertaken, and 
still the people went wild with speculation. 

398. Distribution of the Surplus. — To add to it all. Presi- 
dent Jackson came forward in 1836 with a proposal to dis- 
tribute the government surplus. By that year the national 
debt had been entirely paid, and there was a surplus of gov- 
ernment funds on deposit with the "pet banks," amounting 
to several millions of dollars. The Surplus Act, providing 
for the distribution of a large portion of this surplus among 
the several states, helped the states but crippled the deposit 
banks — $28,000,000 being withdrawn and distributed to the 
states within nine months. Many of the states joined in the 
mad whirl of speculation by investing their share of the sur- 
plus in speculative enterprises, or in unnecessary public 
improvements. 

Specie soon began to disappear. Jackson, hoping to check 
its withdrawal, threw the entire output of the mint into cir- 
culation, and required all deposit banks to maintain one-third 
of their circulation in specie. 

399. The Specie Circular. — At about this time Jackson was 
confronted by a new problem, due to the rapid and unex- 
pected increase in the sale of the public lands in the west, 
which were being purchased in large tracts for speculative 
purposes. These sales were now bringing into the govern- 
ment treasury in a single year as much as $25,000,000 in 
depreciated bank notes. In order to check this speculation 



314 HISTORY OF THE I'XITED STATES 

in government land, and at the same time protect the gov- 
ernment against the evils of this depreciated currency, Jack- 
son issued his celebrated "specie circular," which required 
that all land should be paid for thereafter in specie. 

The specie circular precipitated a financial crash — but it 
came in Van Buren's time. Before the blow fell upon the 
country Jackson had retired to private life. 

400. The Webster and Hayne Debate— Feb. 1830.— After 
the passage of the Tariff of 1828, South Carolina carried her 
protest to the point of "nullification,"— a political doctrine 
which had of late been set forth by John C. Calhoun in defence 
of the theory of "state rights." 

The action of the South Carolina legislature aroused great 
excitement throughout the country, and it was felt in the 
north that the interests of the nation demanded that some 
one competent to do so should make a reply to the argu- 
ments advanced in support of Calhoun's theories. 

The occasion arose sooner than expected. Senator Robert 
Y. Hayne of South Carolina in a speech delivered before the 
senate in February, 1830, attacked the New England states. 
This drew forth a spirited reply from Daniel Webster, the 
senator from Massachusetts. Hayne, in his reply to Webster, 
boldly advocated the doctrine of "nullification," which 
brought forth Webster's celebrated speech in defence of the 
constitution — perhaps the greatest effort of America's great- 
est orator. This debate, known as the Webster - Ha3^ne 
debate, marked an epoch in the constitutional development 
of the country. In it Webster won the well-earned title, 
"The Expounder of the Constitution." 

401. The Tariff of 1832: The Nullification Act Passed by 
South Carolina: Compromise Tariff of 1833. — Following the 
Webster-Hayne debate. South Carolina was bolder than ever 
in the advocacy of Calhoun's doctrines. She wanted but an 
opportunity to declare herself. Such an opportunity was 
offered in the Tariff of 1832. This bill still maintained the 
American protective system, though the level of duties was 





ANDKEW JACKSON" 
STEPHKN A. DOUGLAS 



JOHN C. CACHOtTN 
HENKY CLAY 



National an^d State Rights Leaders 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 315 

lowered. South Carolina's reply was the "Nullification Act" 
of November 19, 1832, declaring the tariff acts of 1828 and 
1832 "null and void." This act further declared that the 
state of South Carolina would permit no tariff duties to be 
collected at any ports of entry in South Carolina; and finally 
made the bold declaration, "that, if the general government 
should attempt to use force to maintain the authority of the 
Federal law, the state of South Carolina would secede from 
the union." 

Just three weeks later, President Jackson issued his 
famous nullification proclamation, in which he announced 
that the union "must and shall be maintained." Declaring 
his determination to enforce the laws of the United States, 
he ordered troops under GeneralWinfield Scott to Charleston. 

In the meantime, congress had passed Clay's compromise 
tariff bill, providing for a gradual reduction of tariff duties. 
This bill being satisfactory to both sides, the crisis passed. 

402. National Nominating Conventions. — The presidential 
election of 1832 marks the beginning of national nominating 
conventions. The first national nominating convention was 
held by the "Anti-Masonic" party, a short-lived organization 
opposed to secret societies, which met at Baltimore in Sep- 
tember, 1831, and nominated William Wirt as a candidate for 
the presidency. 

In the December following, the National-Republican party 
met in the same city and nominated Henry Clay to succeed 
Jackson. In May, 1832, the Democratic national conven- 
tion met at Baltimore and nominated Jackson to succeed 
himself as president, and named Martin Van Buren as the 
candidate for vice-president. 

403. Origin of the Whig Party in 1834.— The leaders of the 
National-Republican party, finding themselves unable to 
muster strength enough to overcome the Democratic party, 
formed a union (1834) of all the factions opposed to Jackson. 
This coalition opposed the power of the president, whom 
they charged with usurpation, and took the name of 



316 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

** Whigs" — in imitation of the revolutionary party which 
opposed King George during the struggle for independence. 
The Whigs, having so recently organized, made no nomina- 
tions in the election of 1835. Henry Clay was their first 
great leader. 

Strictly speaking, the Whig party was not a party at all, 
but a combination of parties representing many opposing 
views within its own ranks. This made it impossible for it 
to formulate any agreed statement of principles upon which 
all its membership could unite. It supported a protective 
tariff, stood for internal improvements, and a majority 
favored "loose construction." 

The Whigs won in two national elections, but disappeared 
after their defeat in 1852, on account of the fact that the 
party became divided upon the slavery question. 

404. The Black Hawk and Florida Wars. — During the 
years 1831-32, the Sac and Fox Indians, led by their noted 
chief. Black Hawk, refused to surrender certain lands in 
Illinois and Wisconsin, which they had ceded to the whites 
in 1830. In the war which ensued. Black Hawk was defeated 
and these Indians forced to move to the Indian land west of 
the Mississippi Eiver. 

In this war two young men appear for the first time in 
American history — Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, a captain of 
the Illinois militia; and Jefferson Davis, a lieutenant in the 
regular army. 

In 1835 an attempt was made to remove the Seminole 
Indians to lands set aside for them west of the Mississippi. 
This precipitated a war known as the Florida war, charac- 
terized by the usual Indian barbarities. Osceola, chief of the 
Seminoles, was finally captured and confined as a prisoner of 
war at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina, where he died some 
time later. The Indians were later defeated in the battle of 
Okechobee (1837) by Colonel Zachary Taylor. They, how- 
ever, persisted in their opposition to removal until the year 
1842. 



FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN 317 

405. New States Admitted: Arkansas — 1836; Michigan — 
1837. — Arkansas, the twenty-fifth state, was admitted to 
the union in 1836 as a slave state; and Michigan, the 
twenty-sixth, in 1837, as a free state. 

406. The Fifth Census— 1830.— The fifth census showed a 
population of 12,866,020, including 2,009,043 slaves, of 
which 3,568 were north of Mason and Dixon's line, the 
remainder south. 

407. The Presidential Election of 1836. — In the election of 
1836 Martin Van Buren of New York, the Democratic nomi- 
nee, won over AVilliam Henry Harrison of Ohio, the Whig 
candidate — receiving one hundred seventy electoral votes as 
against seventy-three cast for Harrison. Richard M. John- 
son of Kentucky was elected vice-president by the senate — 
no candidate for that office having received a constitutional 
majority in the electoral college. 

The Democrats adhered to the principles of Jackson, 
opposed the United States Bank and a protective tariff. The 
Whigs stood by the principles on which the party had been 
organized two years previous. 

In this election both the Democrats and Whigs were 
divided into factions. In the electoral college. South Caro- 
lina cast her votes for W. P. Mangum; and Tennessee and 
Georgia cast theirs for Hugh L. White, both of whom were 
Anti-Van Buren Democrats. Massachusetts cast her elec- 
toral votes for Daniel Webster, who with Clay had helped to 
organize the Whig party. 

YAN" BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION" 

DEMOCRATIC: 1837-1841 

408. Martin Van Buren, eighth president of the United 
States, was, like two of his predecessors, the son of a small 
farmer. He was admitted to the bar in 1803, and soon won 
distinction as an able lawyer. Like Jackson, Van Buren 
was a self-educated man, but he far excelled the former in 
polish and culture. He was a man of simple tastes and 



318 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

gracious manners, and, tliougli a partisan in politics of the 
most pronounced type, he never allowed political differences 
to alienate him from friends who belonged to the opposite 
])arty, as is shown in the warm personal friendship existing 
between himself and Henry Clay. 

Before his election to the presidency, he had served as 
attorney-general and later as governor of New York. He 
had been United States senator from that state, and had 
served as Jackson's secretary of state from 1829 to 1831, 
when he resigned to accept the appointment of minister to 
England. He, however, never assumed the duties of that 
office, due to the fact that Calhoun, Webster, and Clay com- 
bined to secure his rejection by the senate. The Democratic 
party immediately nominated him as its candidate for vice- 
president, and the following year he was elected to that office, 
tliereby becoming presiding officer of the very body which 
had rejected his appointment to the court of England. 
Over the senate he presided with dignity and fairness, and 
by the close of Jackson's administration, his popularity won 
him the Democratic nomination, and the presidency. 

After his retirement from the presidency, he still continued 
to take an interest in public affairs. Though defeated in 
1840, for reelection, he again sought the nomination of his 
party in 1844, but on account of his antislavery sentiments 
failed. In 1853 he was nominated for the presidency by the 
Free-soil party, but failed of election. 

He was born at Kinderhook, New York, in 1782, and died in 
1862, on his beautiful estate of Lindenwald, near his native city. 

409. The Financial Panic of 1837.— The issuing of the 
specie circular was one of the last acts of Jackson's adminis- 
tration. Van Buren now assumed all responsibility therefor, 
and committed himself to the policy of his predecessor. 
Banking institutions stood the strain on their gold and silver 
reserve as long as they could, then bank after bank suspended 
specie payment until not a specie-paying bank was left in the 
coui\try. 



FROM JACKSON TO LIXCOLN 319 

The bubble of speculation, now blown to its full limit, 
burst, and the whole country was overwhelmed with com- 
mercial disaster. Business house after business house closed 
its doors. Enterprise after enterprise shut down ; every line 
of business in the country was overtaken by the storm; and, 
on account of Jackson's policy, the government, too, was 
involved in the ruin. Failures were every day occurrences, 
the losses mounting up into the millions. "Hard times" 
prevailed among all classes of people. Bread riots occurred 
in New York, and hostility toward the banks and speculat- 
ing companies was shown everywhere. The states could not 
pay their debts. The government was unable to meet its 
expenses. All confidence had been destroyed and trade was 
at a standstill, when A^an Buren called a special session of 
congress to consider the state of public affairs. 

410. The Sub-Treasury— 1840.— The policy which Van 
Buren adopted was to let the country recover from its busi- 
ness disturbances in its own way, and to aid in its recovery 
only by restoring the national credit. He outlined a plan 
known as the Independent Treasury, and for four years 
pressed this measure before congress, until the Independent 
Treasury Act, or Sub-Treasury Bill, as it is sometimes called, 
was passed by that body in the last year of his administra- 
tion. 

The Sub-Treasury Bill provided that all public money 
should be kept in the vaults of the United States Treasury 
at AVashington, and in sub-treasuries established by congress; 
and that all payments of moneys made to or by the United 
States should be in gold or silver. This act for the first 
time in the history of the United States completely separated 
the financial affairs of the government from the banking 
interests of the country. 

411. The Sixth Census — 1840. — The sixth census showed 
the population of the United States to be 17,069,453 — an 
increase in ten years of nearly six millions of people. Of 
this population 2,486,326 were slaves — an increase of nearly 



320 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

five hundred thousand in ten years. There remained in the 
north but 1,129 slaves. 

412. The Presidential Election of 1840. — Although business 
had revived somewhat as the time for the presidential elec- 
tion of 1840 approached, the country was still suffering from 
the effects of the panic of 1837. Discontent reigned every- 
where, and the *'hard times" w^ere charged to Van Buren 
and his administration of the public affairs. And yet the 
Democratic party unanimously renominated him, thereby 
showing their confidence in the "Little Magician," as he was 
familiarly called. The Whigs again chose William Henry 
Harrison of Ohio as their candidate. 

James G. Birney was placed in nomination at Albany, New 
York, by the Liberty, or Abolition party, which declared 
itself in favor of using all constitutional methods for the 
abolition of slavery. 

The Democrats opposed the rechartering of the United 
States Bank, and all interference with slavery ; they for the 
first time declared for internal improvements; came out 
boldly for a tariff for revenue only, and favored the sub- 
treasury. 

The Whigs favored the revival of the bank and a 
protective tariff; and opposed the sub-treasury. They asked 
that a just limitation be put upon the president's power of 
veto. 

The campaign of 1840 was unique. The republican sim- 
plicity of Harrison's home was made much of by his admirers, 
and the "log cabin and hard cider" campaign became one of 
the most enthusiastic presidential campaigns in the history of 
the country. The "coon-skin cap" became a party emblem. 
This was the first j^i'esidential campaign to introduce the 
great mass meetings and processions, that have since become 
such a prominent feature of national elections. 

"Tippecanoe and Tyler too" were successfully sung into 
the White House, and Harrison was inaugurated president 
the 4th of March, 1841. 



i 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 321 



HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 

WHIG : lii41-lS45 

413. William Henry Harrison, ninth president of the 
United States, was a son of Benjamin Harrison, a signer of 
the Declaration of Independence. On graduating from 
Hampden Sydney College, Virginia, Harrison began the 
study of medicine, but soon gave up that profession for a 
military life. He liad served as a delegate to congress from 
the Northwest Territory, and had been superintendent of 
Indian affairs. While governor of the territory of Indiana, 
an Indian outbreak occurred, and his victory at Tippecanoe 
won him a national reputation. In the second war with 
England he had commanded the army of the west and had 
won a brilliant victory at the battle of the Thames. He 
had served as a member of congress from Ohio; later, as 
United States senator from that state, and still later as 
minister to the republic of Colombia, South America. In 
1836 he was nominated for president, but was defeated by 
Van Buren. 

Four years later, the Whig national convention made him 
their nominee, and Van Buren was again his opponent. Har- 
rison was elected and at once surrounded himself with an 
able cabinet, in which Daniel Webster was his secretary of 
state. Just one month after his inauguration the country 
was shocked by the news of his sudden death. It was the 
first death of a chief magistrate while in office, and came as 
a great blow to the Wliig party, which had hoped for much 
from this administration. 

Harrison, while not a brilliant man, had shown great 
ability as an administrator and was a man of great prudence 
and common sense — a straightforward man of the people 
He was born at Berkeley, Virginia, in 1773. He died at his 
post of duty in Washington April 4, 1841. Two days later 
the vice-president, John Tyler, took the oath of office and 
succeeded to the presidency. 



322 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

414. John Tyler, tenth president of the United States, 
was, like many of his predecessors, a Virginian. He was 
graduated from William and Mary College, and was soon 
thereafter admitted to the bar. He entered public life in 
1811 as a member of the legislature of Virginia, and later 
served as governor of that state. He represented Virginia 
in both houses of congress, where he won distinction as a 
United States senator. 

Tyler came to the presidency under peculiar circumstances. 
It was the first time in the history of the government when a 
vice-president had succeeded to the office. Of course, all 
knew that such a succession was not impossible, but the lead- 
ers had given little serious thought to such an event. 

Tyler was a man of strong Democratic tendencies, although 
somewhat independent of party ties. He had been elected 
as vice-president by the Whigs, with whom he had lately 
affiliated on account of his opposition to Jackson and Van 
Buren, as well as on account of his refusal to submit to all 
the dictations of the Democratic leaders in congress. It 
was known that he differed from the Whigs on the question 
of renewing the United States Bank, and that he was an 
advocate of "state rights." The Whigs, hoping to gain the 
doubtful southern vote, winked at Tyler's opposition to the 
bank, and placed his name on the ticket with that of Harri- 
son, having no thought that the reins of government would 
so soon fall into his hands. 

He retired from office in 18-45, to his estate of Sherwood 
Forest, a few miles from his native town, and was in retire- 
ment until 18G1, when he became a member of the Peace 
Convention called by President Buchanan to avert the issue 
of civil war. He later advised the secession of Virginia, 
renounced his allegiance to the United States, and was soon 
after elected to represent the seceded state of Virginia in the 
Confederate congress. He died in Eichmond, Virginia, in 
1862. 

415. The United States Bank and the Quarrel between 



4 

FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 323 

Tyler and Congress. — Before Harrison's death he had issued 
a call for a special session of congress, which convened in 
the following May and continued in session until September. 
During that time there was constant clashing between Tyler 
and the Whig majority in congress. A bill repealing the 
Sub-Treasury Act was promptly passed. There having been 
many business failures during the recent commercial disaster, 
congress sought to relieve business men in all sections of the 
country from their debts by passing a general bankruptcy 
law. The Independent Treasury out of the way, congress 
now sought to restore the United States Bank by passing an 
act rechartering it. To the chagrin of the Whigs, Tyler 
vetoed the bill. The party leaders now sought a conference 
with the president, and secured his approval of a bill looking 
to the recharter of the bank. This bill was promptly passed 
through congress, but Tyler, disregarding his pledge, again 
used his power of veto. 

The Whigs, angered by this unexpected opposition from 
the man whom they had been instrumental in placing in the 
presidential chair, bitterly denounced Tyler as a traitor. Led 
by Clay, they read him out of the party and forced him, 
during the remainder of his administration, to act with the 
Democratic party. The entire cabinet resigned excepting 
only Webster, who remained until he had settled the north- 
eastern boundary dispute with England. 

416. The Tariff of 1842.— When the Whig congress of 
1841 convened, it found itself facing a deficit of eleven mil- 
lion dollars inherited from Van Buren's administration. 
The time, too, had arrived when duties were to be reduced 
to the lowest point, as provided in Clay's Compromise Tariff 
of 1833. The Whigs, true to their party pledges, passed a 
tariff act which was promptly vetoed by Tyler. Another act 
was now prepared, and met with a similar fate. Millard 
Fillmore then came forward with a measure which, through 
his personal influence, he induced Tyler to support. This 
bill became a law in 1842, and remained in force four years. 



324 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



It was chiefly a revenue bill, though slightly protective. It 
soon discharged the deficit, and by the end of Tyler's 
administration another surplus had accumulated in the 
treasury. 

417. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty: The Northeastern 
Boundary — 1842. — Since the treaty of 1783 there had been a 
constant dispute between the United States and Great 
Britain over the northeastern boundary — particularly that 
portion located on the line between Maine and New Bruns- 
wick. This dispute had at times threatened the peacefiU 
relations of the- two countries. All efforts to settle it satis- 
factorily had failed until the year 1842, when the two gov- 
ernments agreed to refer the question at issue to Daniel 
Webster as secretary of state, and Lord Ashburton as the 
representative of Great Britain. 

By the treaty which they made, the northeastern boundary 
was established at its present limits — from the mouth of the 
St. Croix River on the Atlantic coast to the St. Lawrence 
River. The treaty also provided for fixing the northern 
boundary of the United States westward from the upper 
extremity of Lake Huron along the present boundary line, 
to the crest of the Rocky Mountains, leaving the northwest- 
ern boundary — northern boundary of Oregon — still unset- 
tled. 

418. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island — 1843.— Rhode 
Island had for two hundred years acted under the charter 
which had been granted to Roger AVilliams by Charles II. 
This, her only constitution, contained some provisions which 
were not in keeping with the growth of republican ideas in 
America. One clause was particularly objectionable — that 
restricting the right to vote to property holders. At the 
time of the adoption of a new constitution in 1843, two rival 
parties contested for the control of the state. The "Law 
and Order party," acting under the old charter, elected a 
governor and proceeded, in a regular way, to organize the 
state government under the new constitution. The 



n 



FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 325 

"Suffrage party," throwing the charter aside, elected 
Thomas W. Dorr as governor, and organized a rival govern- 
ment. A clash resulted, bnt Dorr's rebellion was soon sup- 
pressed by the aid of the United States troops. Dorr was 
tried for treason in Rhode Island and imprisoned, but after- 
wards released. 

419. The Patroon War: Antirent Difficulties— 1844.— A 
domestic disturbance also occurred in New York, called the 
"Patroon War," growing out of the old "patroon system"* 
established in 1629. 

Owing to the generosity of the wealthy proprietor of one 
of these rich estates — the Van Rensselaer — in the vicinity of 
Albany, rents had not been collected from the tenants for sev- 
eral years. This proprietor dying in 1839, his heirs undertook 
to force the collection of all back rents. This collection the 
tenants resisted, even going so far as to heap indignities 
upon officers of the law, who were sent to enforce the collec- 
tion of the rents. Tenants on other estates imitated their 
example. Finally, open revolt resulted, and riot and blood- 
shed followed. The aid of the military was called in and the 
revolt suppressed. The tenants continuing to resist, now 
sought relief in the New York Court of Appeals, which in 
1852 gave a decision, in the main sustaining the contention 
of the antirenters, although the matter has not to this day 
been quite satisfactorily settled. 

420. The Mormons. — Another domestic disturbance 
occurred, this time of a religious nature. The Mormons, 
under the leadership of their prophet, Joseph Smith, settled 
in Jackson County, Missouri, where they rapidly multiplied 
until they numbered some fifteen hundred people. Their 
practices and their teachings were so objectionable to their 
neighbors that the state of Missouri, through the aid of its 
militia, in 1839, ejected them from tlie state. Crossing the 
Mississippi into the state of Illinois, they laid out, on a high 
bluff overlooking the river, the city of Nauvoo, and there 

^ See Sec. 103, page 91. 



326 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



erected a Mormon temple. Here they continued to increase 
more rapidly than before, their settlement numbering by the 
year 1844 ten thousand persons. 

The greatest hostility was manifested toward this sect. 
Tliey were held responsible, perhaps unjustly, for many mur- 
ders and thefts which had been committed in the vicinity. 
Their doctrines were abhorred. An uprising against them 
was threatened, when Smith and his brother were arrested, 

taken across the river into Mis- 
souri, and imprisoned at Car- 
thage. Here the people stormed 
the jail in which the '^prophet" 
was confined, and killed Smith and 
his brother. Determined to drive 
the Mormons from the state, the 
Illinois legislature annulled the 
charter of the city of Nauvoo. 
Acts of violence continuing against 
them, the Mormons now deter- 
mined to retire beyond the bounds 
of civilization. They sojourned for 
a while in the vicinity of Council 
Hluffs, Iowa; and a few years later 
transplanted their entire settle- 
ment beyond the Eocky Mountains, 
and began the building of a "Mor- 
mon Empire" at Salt Lake City. Brigham Young succeeded 
Smith as the Mormon prophet. 

421. Bunker Hill Monument— 1842.— The year 1842 marks 
the completion of the Bunker Hill monument, located on the 
crest of Bunker Hill, Boston, Massachusetts. At the time of 
Lafayette's visit in 1825, that hero had laid the corner-stone, 
and Daniel Webster, then in the prime of life, had delivered 
the oration. At the completion of the monument in 1842, 
Webster again, attlie age of sixty, delivered an oration to an 
audience of twenty-five thousand of his fellow countrymen. 




BUNKKR HILL MONUMENT 



PROM JACKSON TO LIJS^COLN 327 

The occasion was one of great patriotic interest in which 
the whole nation joined. All hearts were stirred as the 
great orator referred to Lafayette as the "electric spark 
through which liberty had been transmitted from the new 
to the old world"; and in a burst of the grandest eloquence 
paid tribute to the soldiers of the Revolution. The reference 
was all the more pathetic, since there sat upon the platform 
with the orator a few old veterans, — gray, grizzled, and bent 
with the weight of years — the remnant of the army of the 
Revolution, 

422. The "Gag-Rule" and the Right of Petition.— In 
1836 the republic of Texas applied for admission to the 
United States. Tho abolition societies at once sent petition 
after petition to congress opposing its annexation on grounds 
of slavery. This angered the slaveholding members of the 
house of representatives, which on the suggestion of the 
southern members revived an old rule prohibiting the house 
from receiving petitions in any way referring to the question 
of slavery. Ex-President John Quincy Adams, then a member 
of the house, with all the powers of his eloquence protested 
against this "gag-rule" as an infringement of the constitu- 
tional rights of the individual citizen of the republic. 

From that time until the year 1842, the "Old Man Elo- 
quent" persistently attacked the rule, and fought for the 
"right of petition. " He was abused on all sides by the mem- 
bers from the slaveholding states, but he kept up the fight. 
On one occasion he introduced a petition signed by a num- 
ber of slaves, whereupon the wrath of the southern members 
knew no bounds. The greatest disorder prevailed in the 
house, when the high falsetto voice of Adams rang out 
clear above the din, as he read the concluding clause in the 
petition— begging the congress of the United States not to 
abolish the instittitioii of slavery. The slaveholding mem- 
bers, disconcerted and baffled, saw nothing laughable in this 
incident, and never forgave Adams for presenting the peti- 
tion. 



328 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The whole matter came to a climax January 1, 1842, 
when Adams presented a petition signed by forty-five citi- 
zens of Haverhill, Massachusetts, protesting against the 
institution of slavery and praying that the union be dis- 
solved. Adams at once moved that the petition be referred 
to a special committee, with instructions to report why it 
should not be granted. 

The reading of the petition raised a storm. Adams was 
greeted with cries of *' Villain!" — ^*' Curse him!" — "Expel 
him!" — and the house adjourned in the greatest confusion. 
The next day a resolution of censure was introduced, and its 
adoption urged in the most vindictive manner. Adams 
replied in language suited to the occasion and would not be 
silenc'ed. When asked how long he expected to hold the 
floor, his reply was, "Burke took three months for his 
speech in the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and I think 
I may get through in ninety days or less." 

The southern members, now seeing that opposition to so 
fearless a champion was useless, voted that the resolution of 
censure be laid upon the table. Adams had won in the final 
struggle of bis life. Three years later (1845) the ''gag- 
rule" was rescinded. 

423. Abolition. — The opposition to the "right of petition" 
had tended greatly to increase the abolition sentiment in the 
north. Since the year 1832 abolition societies and antislav- 
ery societies had been everywhere organized, and now counted 
their membership by the thousands. 

William Lloyd Garrison, with his weekly newspaper, "The 
Liberator," had kept the whole country aroused. Through 
his influence abolition literature had been circulated even in 
the south. In Jackson's time, the postmaster-general had 
directed that all such literature be excluded from the mails. 
This action only hastened the growth of the abolition move- 
ment. 

From 1833 to 1837, Elijah P. Lovejoy edited "The St. 
Louis Observer," an abolition paper, in which he ardently 



I 



FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLN 329 

attacked slavery. On account of violent opposition from the^ 
proslavery element iti that city, he had moved (1836) across 
the river to Alton, Illinois, Avhere he was attacked by a mob 
and killed (1837) and his press destroyed and thrown into 
the river. This tragedy on the Mississippi bluff caused 
intense excitement throughout the country, which grew in 
intensity as it rolled eastward into the New England states, 
where it gave to the antislavery cause its most brilliant 
advocate — Wendell Phillips. In a thrilling address at a mass 
meeting in Faneuil Hall — the Cradle of Liberty— made in 
reply to a speech by the state's attorney of Massachusetts, 
in which that officer sought to excuse the mob at Alton, Phil- 
lips so roused his audience and the entire country that he at 
once sprang into national prominence as the champion of 
human liberty. From that day on, the name of Wendell 
Phillips was coupled with that of William Lloyd Garrison — 
the great leader of the antislavery forces. 

424. The Republic of Texas, a Disturbing Element in 
National Politics. — The greatest event in the administration 
of Tyler was the annexation of Texas. Moses Austin, of 
Connecticut, having secured permission of the Spanish gov- 
ernment, founded a colony in the province of Texas in 1821, 
where he took with him the spirit of Yankee thrift and 
enterprise. The soil being rich and the climate attractive, 
the colony made rapid growth. Its success at once attracted 
attention in the United States. Jackson, while president, 
made an effort to purchase the province of Texas from the 
Mexican government, but all offers were rejected. This fail- 
ure, however, did not check the tide of immigration which 
continued to] pour into the province of Texas from the 
United States. 

Austin and his followers had carried with them the insti- 
tution of slavery. This institution was now attacked in 1835 
by the Mexican government, which issued a proclamation 
granting freedom to every slave in Mexican territory and 
making Mexico a consolidated state. This proclamation 



330 



HISTORY OE THE UNITED STATES 



aroused the opposition of the Texans, who immediately 
declared their independence and set up a government at Aus- 
tin. A war resulted, which under the leadership of General 
Samuel Houston was fought to a successful issue at the bat- 
tle of San Jacinto, whereupon the Texas republic was estab- 
lished (1836) with a constitution favoring slavery. General 
Houston became its president. The limits of the new 
republic were not clearly defined. Mexico insisted that 

Texas did not extend 
beyond the Nueces 
on the southwest and 
stopped on the west 
at a boundary far 
within the Texas 
claims. In fact Texas 
asserted the right to 
over twice the terri- 
tory which Mexico 
admitted to belong to 
her. Here were the 
seeds of future war. 
The independence of 
the Texas republic 
was soon acknowl- 
edged by the United 
States, England, 
France, and Belgium. 
Texas at once applied for admission into the American 
union. From that date (1836) until its annexation had been 
accomplished, Texas became a disturbing political question 
in national politics. 

425. Annexation of Texas — 1845. — When Texas first 
applied for admission in 1836, congress was flooded by peti- 
tions from the north opposing its admission on the grounds 
of slavery. On the other hand, annexation was strongly 
urged in the south. And yet neither political party seemed 



^ 


V L_ 


~A i ^^ 


% 




s 


•^ ^4y 




H / 

/ 


\ 

1 




K 


i; i: I' I 1! L 


1 ('-'OF ~*\ 


y^ 




^^. \ 




T E \ 


^^ t-u>i,iu;.\ ; 


■v. 


J> Claim.- n N ' \ 

Acknowledged ^^ 
by Mexico ^^ 


/ 

>\ . ! F OP 
"'1 MI XICO 



FROM JACKSOIs^ TO LIXCOLI!^ 331 

to be able to unite all its forces on either side of the question 
— the southern Democrats and "states' rights" Whigs fa- 
vored it, while the northern Democrats and the "free-state" 
Whigs arrayed themselves against it. The question therefore 
became a sectional issue. Van Buren, though urged by the 
southern Democrats, opposed annexation during his entire 
term. In Tyler's administration, however, the Democrats, 
under the leadership of John 0. Calhoun, made annexation a 
party issue and declared for the admission of Texas. The 
Whigs, under the leadership of Henry Clay, now united in 
opposition. This precipitated a bitter contest, in which 
those favoring annexation won. Congress, on December 29, 
1845, passed a joint resolution annexing Texas to the United 
States, and admitting it into the union as one of the states 
of the republic. 

426. New States Admitted into the Union: Texas — 1845; 
Florida — 1845. — Before the admission of Texas, Florida, 
with a constitution favoring slavery, had been admitted into 
the union as the twenty-seventh state. Texas was admitted 
as the twenty-eighth state. 

427. Samuel F. B. Morse and the Telegraph— 1844.— In the 
year 1844 Samuel F. B. Morse, while sitting in a small office 
in Baltimore, placed his fingers upon the key of a small mag- 
netic instrument which, with its mysterious clickety-click- 
click, instantly flashed to a friend in Washington this 
message: "What hath God wrought!" — the first telegram 
ever sent in America. 

At that time the Democratic national convention was in 
session in Baltimore. Morse accordingly sent a telegram to 
Silas Wright in Washington notifying him of his nomination 
for vice-president. Morse's assistant at Washington trans- 
mitted Wright's reply, declining the nomination. This 
was the first news ever sent by telegraph wire. On the 
same day the news of the nomination of James K. Polk 
to the presidency was flashed to Washington, and on the 
following morning it appeared in the daily papers of 



332 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

that city. The people read in astonishment, almost un- 
able to believe, but later applauded the name of Professor 
Morse as one of America's greatest inventors. 

Like all great inventions, the electro-magnetic telegraph 
had cost infinite patience and unmeasured toil. Morse had 
begun his experiments twelve years before, and by 1834 had 
demonstrated to his own satisfaction that messages could be 
transmitted to distant points by wire, through the agency 
of electricity. In 1835 he submitted his invention to con- 
gress, and asked for an appropriation to construct a telegraph 
line between the cities of Baltimore and Washington, — a dis- 
tance of forty miles, — but his request was refused. Morse 
then visited the countries of Europe, where he met with no 
better success. Returning to America, he persistently 
besieged congress until that body in 1843 voted an appro- 
priation of $30,000 to construct the line for which he had 
asked in 1835. In 1844 this line was completed with the 
startling, though successful, results here narrated. 

The success of the telegraph was instantaneous. To-day 
it has become one of the indispensable agencies in the trans- 
mission of news and the transaction of business. In the 
United States alone there are nearly 200,000 miles of tele- 
graph line, using nearly a million miles of Avire. As the 
years have gone by, Morse's instruments have been gradually 
improved, and the efficiency of the telegraph service increased. 
The world yet awaits in eager expectation the results of inven- 
tive geniuses who are constantly at work upon the improve- 
ment of telegraphic appliances. Since the year 1900, "wire- 
less telegraphy" has been assured. The astonishment of the 
world was no greater in 1844 than it was in 1902, when 
Marconi, through the agency of "wireless telegraphy," 
flashed a message from the shores of America across the At- 
lantic ocean. 

428. The Presidential Election in 1844. — The presidential 
election of 1844 was held prior to the admission of Texas, 
which question became an issue in tlie campaign. 



FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN o'6'd 

Henry Clay of Kentucky was placed in nomination by the 
Whigs, who now opposed the annexation of Texas, and asked 
that a restriction be placed on the veto power of the presi- 
dent. James K. Polk of Tennessee was nominated by the 
Democrats, who declared for the annexation of Texas and 
upheld the veto power. 

James G. Birney of New York was again nominated by the 
Liberty party, which opposed slavery. This party in 1840 
had received but seven thousand votes; in this election it 
received sixty thousand votes. It was strong in New York, 
Birney's own state, where it is said to have so recruited 
votes from the Whig party that the electoral vote of New 
York went to the Democrats, — to which cause more than any 
other, Clay's defeat was attributed. 

Polk was elected with George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania as 
vice-president. 

folk's administration 

DEMOCRATIC: 1H45-It^49 

429. James K. Polk, the eleventh president of the United 
States, was the son of a farmer, and a graduate of the Uni- 
versity of North Carolina. He removed with his father to 
Tennessee, where he was admitted to the bar in 1820. He 
was elected as a congressman from Tennessee five years later, 
and served as chairman of the ways and means committee in 
the house of representatives. For five sessions, from 1835 
to 1839, he was speaker of the house, which position brought 
him prominently before the public. In 1839 he was elected 
governor of Tennessee, but failed of reelection two years 
later. In 1844 he was nominated by the Democratic 
National Convention at Baltimore as a "safe" man, and 
because he favored the annexation of Texas. 

On assuming the presidency, he surrounded himself with 
an especially able cabinet, among whom were James Buchanan, 
afterwards president of the United States, Robert J. AYalker, 
an able financier, and George Bancroft, the historian. 

It was during his administration that political parties 



334 



HISTOKY OF THE UlS^ITED STATES 



began to divide more and more upon the question of the 
extension of slavery. The very question of territorial expan- 
sion had become so identified with the slavery question as now 
to become a national issue of the greatest importance and 
to involve the permanency of the union of the states. Polk, 
however, reared in the political school of Andrew Jackson, 
apparently had no fears of disunion. Like Jackson, he at 
all times advocated national unity. 

He declined a renomination to the presidency, and at the 
end of his term of office retired to private life at Nashville, 
Tennessee, where he died a few months later, in 1849. He 
was born in 1705. 




Shaded portion shows disputed territory. % 

Scale of Milea ' 
2 5 5 7 5 IC 



430. Dispute over the Boundary of Texas. — When Tesas in 
1836 had declared her independence of Mexico she had 
claimed as her southwestern boundary the Rio Grande River, 



/J 



FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLX 335 

although the land between the Nneces Eiver and the Eio 
Grande had been settled early in the seventeenth century by 
Spaniards and had been in undisputed possession of the 
Spaniards and Mexicans ever since. Mexico claimed that the 
Nueces Eiver was the southwestern boundary of Texas. When 
the news reached Mexico that Texas had been annexed, the 
Mexicans clamored for war and Texas sent an urgent request 
to President Polk to dispatch an army of United States 
troops to the frontier to protect the citizens of Texas against 
the threatened attack of Mexico. President Polk at once dis- 
patched General Zachary Taylor with an army to the Mexican 
frontier to await developments. 

431. Taylor's Army of Occupation. — General Taylor took 
a position at Corpus Christi on the west flank of the Nueces 
Eiver, the actual Mexican frontier, and for several months 
there was nothing to indicate intended hostilities beyond the 
protection of Texas as one of the states of the republic. In 
November, 1845, President Polk sent John Slidell as envoy 
extraordinary to Mexico to negotiate with that government a 
settlement of the boundary question. Upon Mexico's refusal 
to recognize Slidell, Polk ordered Taylor to advance, and on 
the 8th of March, 1846, Taylor with a large army marched 
into the disputed territory. Selecting Point Isabel on the 
Gulf as a base of operations, he rapidly moved forward to the 
Eio Grande Eiver and built Fort Brown, across from Mata- 
moras, where a strong force of Mexicans had gathered under 
General Arista. On April 26, 1846, a small detachment of 
American dragoons under Major Seth B. Thornton was 
attacked by a force of Mexican lancers near Fort Brown, 
where the first blood of the war was shed. After a desperate 
fight Thornton was captured, whereupon more Mexicans soon 
crossed and began threatening Fort Brown. Taylor, fearing 
that the American army might be cut off from its base of 
supplies at Point Isabel, left the fort in charge of a garrison 
of three hundred men and immediately returned to the 
Point. 



o30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



General Arista, believing that the American army had 
left for the coast in a precipitate retreat, at once moved an 
army of six thousand men across the river and took a strong 
position at Palo Alto, with the view of attacking Fort 
Brown. Taylor, having secured his sapplies, began his 
return march to Fort Brown, and on the morning of the 
8th of May unexpectedly came upon the Mexican troops 
at Palo Alto and at once gave battle. The Mexicans were 
driven from the field closely pursued by Taylor. On the 
following day he overtook them at Eesaca de la Palma, 
where he so completely routed them that they did not cease 
in their headlong flight until they had placed the Rio Grande 
between themselves and their pursuers. 

432. Declaration of War — May 11, 1846. — When news of 
Major Thornton's capture reached \Yashington, President 
Polk at once sent a message to congress notifying that body 
that "Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, 
invaded her territory, and shed American blood upon Amer- 
ican soil." His message recommended an immediate declar- 
ation of war since, he said, "war exists, and notwithstanding 
all our efforts to avoid it, exists by the act of Mexico herself." 
Congress promptly responded to the president's request, 
and on the 11th of May, 1846, declared war against Mexico, 
passed a bill making an appropriation of ten million 
dollars, and voted to raise an army of fifty thousand volun- 
teers. 

The war spirit ran high in the United States, particularly 
in the south. To the call for troops fully three hundred 
thousand volunteers responded, from which body of men 
such splendid armies were selected that the Americans did 
not lose a single battle during the entire period of the 
war. 

433. Opposition to the War.— However, there were many 
citizens of the United States who opposed the issue of war 
with Mexico on high moral grounds. They urged that 
the republic would place herself in an unfavorable light 



1 



/A 



FUOM JACKSOX TO LIN'COLX ;i37 

before the eyes of the civilized world should she wage 
a war against a sister republic for the purpose of despoiling 
her of her territorial possessions; and further, that the 
war was in the interest of the extension of slavery, and 
as such it would tend to provoke discord among the 
states of the American union. James Russell Lowell wrote 
part of the first series of the "Biglow Papers" against it, 
and James Fenimore Cooper, his novel entitled "Jack Tier, 
or. The Florida Reef." 

The abolition element in the north was particularly 
strong in its opposition to the war. The moral sentiment 
of the country condemned every movement which tended to 
the further extension of slavery, and in other particulars 
condemned the war as unjustifiable. It was outspoken in 
opposition to a war, the disguised purpose of which was the 
"spoils of territory." 

The war was also opposed on political grounds, by the 
Whig party, which placed itself in opposition to a declaration 
of war, when the president sent his message to congress 
recommending war on the ground that American blood had 
been shed on American soil. Abraham Lincoln, then a 
Whig member from Illinois, introduced a resolution in the 
house known as the "spot resolution." In this he asked that 
the president be requested to give information to congress 
designating geographically the particular "spot" where hos- 
tilities had begun and to prove that "the spot" was part of 
the territory of the United States — intimating thereby that 
the president had needlessly and uselessly precipitated the 
struggle at the suggestion of the slaveholding ^states, in 
order that an excuse might be furnished to despoil Mexico 
of the provinces of New Mexico and California, which they 
hoped later to erect into slave states. This bit of history 
gives us a glimpse of the humor of Abraham Lincoln, and 
reveals his keen insight into political methods. He divined 
that the war would be waged in the interest of the institu- 
tion of slavery, and that therefore it would terminate in a 



3:38 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

war of invasion and conquest. Tlie result of the war 
justified Lincoln's conclusions. 

Although nearly two-thirds of the citizen volunteers came 
from south of Mason and Dixon's line, 3^et even the Xew 
England states responded to the call and man}^ came from 
the northwestern frontier. The Whigs had been the prin- 
cipal opponents of the war, yet the chief military renown of 
the war was won by this party — the two great commanders 
and leaders, Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott, being AVhigs 
in politics. 

434. The Plan of the War.— General Winfield Scott, com- 
mander-in-chief of the American forces, immediately planned 
the invasion and conquest of Mexica. He first directed that 
Commodore Eobert F. Stockton be sent around Cape Horn 
to assume command of the American squadron on the Pacific 
coast, then under command of Commodore John D. Sloat. 
This squadron was to attack the Spanish defences on the 
coasts of Mexico and California and establish a blockade on 
the Pacific. General Scott then divided the fifty thousand 
troops placed at his disposal into three divisions. 

(1) General Stephen W. Kearney was placed in com- 
mand of the army of the west, with instructions to start 
from Fort Leavenworth, cross the Rocky Mountains, and 
conquer the Mexican provinces of New Mexico and Cali- 
fornia. 

(2) General Taylor with his army of occupation was 
directed to cross the Rio Grande and subdue and hold the 
Mexican provinces in the north. 

(3) General Scott himself, in command of the army of 
the center, was to land at some point near Vera Cruz on 
the Mexican coast, and with his army of invasion penetrate 
the heart of the enemy's country and capture the City of 
Mexico. 

435. Taylor's Campaign South of the Rio Grande — Sep- 
tember, 1846 to February, 1847. — General Taylor in the mean- 
time had attacked and taken Matamoras. In September, 



FROM JACKSOK TO LINCOLN" 339 

1846, he proceeded up the river to attack the Mexicans, at 
the strongly fortified city of Monterey. He found that place 
defended by ten thousand troops under General Pedro de 
Ampudia. But Taylor, always ready for battle, — so much 
so that among his own soldiers he was called "Old Kough 
and Ready," — charged the defences with such dash and 
daring that the American army, though greatly inferior in 
numbers, carried everything before it. Within six days, 
after the most desperate fighting, it had penetrated the 
very heart of the city, forced the surrender of General 
Ampudia, and unfurled the stars and stripes above the 
Grand Plaza of Monterey, September 24, 1846. 

At this juncture an armistice was declared for two months, 
owing to the reopening of negotiations between the Mexican 
government and President Polk. When the truce ended. 
General Taylor received the startling intelligence that an 
army of twenty thousand men under Santa Anna was 
marching northward from the City of Mexico to crush 
the American army of occupation. Nothing daunted, Taylor 
proceeded to place his troops in readiness and prepared to 
give battle. Marching out of Monterey he selected a field 
for battle at Buena Vista. The position of the Americans 
was indeed critical. On February 22 the whole Mexican 
army came pouring through the gorges and over the hills 
which surrounded the plateau upon which the army had 
intrenched itself ready for the attack. Santa Anna, con- 
fident of victory, under a flag of truce, asked for a parley 
and demanded the immediate surrender of General Taylor's 
army. "General Taylor never surrenders," was the defiant 
reply, whereupon the opposing forces joined in the issue of 
battle. During the first day the Americans were steadily 
pushed back by the overwhelming numbers of the enemy. 
On the morning of the 23d, the Mexicans made an effort to 
outflank the American position, but were completely foiled, 
with the result that they broke and fled in the greatest 
disorder. During the night Santa Anna withdrew, leaving 



340 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

General Taylor and his army in undisputed possession of 
the battlefield. 

Buena Vista was the most brilliant engagement of the war. 
It made Taylor the popular hero and won for liim the 
presidency. 

436. Kearney's Campaign and the Conquest of New Mexico 
and California— June 1846 to January 1847. — In the mean- 
time the army of the west, under General Kearney, had 
started from Leavenworth in June, 184G, to carry out the 
purpose for Avhich it was organized. Reaching Santa Fe, 
Kearney raised the American flag, and the Mexicans yielded 
without resistance. 

Kearney then marched across the burning sands of the 
desert into California, where events had been happening 
which anticipated the object of his coming. John C. Fre- 
mont had for several years been engaged on a government 
expedition of survey and exploration in the Rocky Moun- 
tains and Sierra Nevada region. Happening in California at 
a time when the Americans were protesting against Mexican 
interference, and being an American officer, he was naturally 
appealed to by the settlers. Considering their provocation 
sufficient, he championed the cause of his countrymen. A 
number of engagements ensued, in which the Americans 
were, without exception, victorious. This was all done in 
actual ignorance of the declaration of war. 

About this time, too, the American squadron which had 
been ordered to patrol the California coast in anticipation of 
just such an event, put in an appearance. Commodore 
Sloat bombarded and captured Monterey, and Commodore 
Stockton, San Diego. On hearing of these events Fremont 
at once joined Sloat in a combined attack upon Los Angeles, 
where the American flag was raised and a military govern- 
ment established over the conquered territory. 

In the meantime Kearney, with Kit Carson, the famous 
scout, as his guide, arrived on the scene, and completed the 
work begun by Fremont and the two officers of the navy. 



/J 



FEOM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 



341 



A rebellion on the part of the Mexicans was suppressed 
by Kearney in the final battle of San Gabriel (June 
8, 9, 1847), and the subjugation of California was complete. 
437. General Scott's Campaign and the End of the War 
— March to September, 1847. — Just one month after Taylor's 
great victory at Buena Yista, General Scott landed an Amer- 
ican force of twelve thousand men at Vera Cruz, and at 
once began an attack upon the Mexican stronghold of San 
Juan de Ulloa, March 29, 1847. Six days later both the city 
and the castle surrendered. This victory inspired the Amer- 
icans with tlie greatest confidence, and after a week spent in 




THK ADVANCE TOWARD MEXICO 



preparation, the army began its triumphal march to the City 
of Mexico, over the same route made famous by Cortez, three 
hundred years before. 

Santa Anna, now fully alive to the dangers that beset his 
country, took charge of the Mexican army in person and dis- 
puted the advance of the invading army at every strategic 
point. He first took position at the pass of Cerro Gordo, 
where he was beaten on the 18th of April. On the 13th of 
May the victorious army marched to the ancient and sacred 
city of Puebla, which offered no resistance to the American 
advance. On the 7th of August the American army reached 
the summit of the mountains which overlooked the beau- 
tiful valley of Mexico, dotted with green fields, villages, 



342 IIISTOKY OF THE UXITED STATES 

and lakes. From those lofty heights the American soldiers 
beheld a populous city surrounded by snow-capped peaks 
and gazed in astonishment upon the same landscape which 
had excited the admiration of the conquering Spaniard at 
the very beginning of American history. A few minor engage- 
ments took place, in which the Americans were successful, 
and on the 20th of August the American army began a series 
of victories which ended in complete triumph. Contreras 
fell on the morning of August 20, after a sharp engagement 
of seventeen minutes, and during that day separate divisions 
of the army successfully captured the several fortresses on 
the heights of Churubusco and laid open the way to the very 
gates of the city. 

The Mexicans made tlieir final stand at the citadel of 
Chapultepec, which fell on the 13th of September. At sun- 
set the American soldiers swept through the gates and 
pitched their tents in the suburbs of the city, and at sunrise 
on the 14th of September, 1847, the army entered the ancient 
city and took possession. 

438. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo —February 2, 1848. 
— After tlie downfall of the City of Mexico, the American 
government sent peace commissioners to confer with the 
Mexican congress in session at Guadalupe Hidalgo. Negoti- 
ations were satisfactorily completed and the treaty signed on 
February 2, 1848. 

By the terms of the treaty, Mexico acknowledged the Kio 
Grande as the southern boundary of Texas, and ceded to 
the United States the whole of upper California and New 
Mexico, thereby adding 500,000 acres of land to the public 
domain of the United States. For this vast expanse of 
territory the United States, on her part, paid Mexico 
$15,000,000 in gold, and assumed all debts due from the 
Mexican government to American citizens to the amount of 
$3,500,000. 

439. The Northwestern Boundary Established— 1846.— 
While the Texas boundary was settled by the issue of war the 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 343 

Oregon boundary was settled by the peaceful method of 
arbitration. The dispute over the northwestern boundary 
had beau of long standing between England and the United 
States. Both countries claimed the whole territory between 
the parallels of 54° 40' and 49°. 

Since the year 1818 the two countries, by mutual agree- 
ment, had jointly occupied the disputed territory. Either 
government wishing to terminate this agreement pledged 
itself to give the other twelve mouths' notice. The United 
States having served such notice on England, the question 
was finally disposed of in 1846 by a treaty, which arranged 
a fair compromise of the conflicting claims by establishing 
the northern boundary at its present limit of the forty-ninth 
parallel of north latitude. 

440. The Tariff of 1846: The Walker Tariff.— In this 
administration the majority party in congress passed a bill 
known as the Walker tariff — named after Robert J. Walker, 
secretary of the treasury. It reduced the duties on imports 
so that they corresponded nearly to the schedule provided 
by Clay's compromise tariff of 1833. Its chief purpose was 
to raise a revenue, although on some articles it was slightly 
protective. 

441. The Wilmot Proviso— 1846. — During the Mexican 
war President Polk sent a message to congress, asking for 
an appropriation of money which might be offered to the 
Mexican government in the settlement of the dispute. A 
bill appropriating two million dollars for that purpose was 
at once introduced into the house of representatives, and 
then the slavery question was brought prominently before the 
country by David Wilmot, a Democratic congressman from 
Pennsylvania. Wilmot offered an amendment to the bill 
providing for the exclusion of slavery from any territory thus 
acquired. The northern Democrats and Whigs supported 
his amendment, which passed the house, but not the senate. 
The amendment provided that "neither slavery nor involun- 
tary servitude shall ever exist in any part of such territory, 



344 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

except for crime, whereof the party shall first be duly con- 
victed." 

This amendment became known as the "Wilmot Proviso" 
and since it involved the whole question of slavery in relation 
to new territory, it became a natioual question. As the war 
with Mexico progressed, this proviso was time after time 
pressed upon congress, by the antislavery advocates, but as 
often defeated. The discussions in congress and throughout 
the country were heated and bitter in the extreme and led to 
the formation of the Free-soil party, which now absorbed 
the Liberty party and placed itself squarely against the 
further extension of slavery. 

442. Discovery of Gold in California : The "Forty-niners." 
— In the year 1849 the world was thrown into a fever of 
excitement by the announcement of the discovery of gold on 
the Sutter settlement in California in the year 1848. The 
man to whom belonged the honor of this discovery was John 
W. Marshall, a laborer on the large estate of John A. 
Sutter, near the present city of Sacramento. While over- 
seeing the digging of a mill race, Marshall was astonished 
to see the precious metal in the sand which was being 
shoveled from the ditch. An attempt was made to keep tlie 
discovery a secret, but the news rapidly spread, and swept 
throughout the California settlements like wildfire. Gold 
seekers by the hundreds came flocking to Sutter's Mill, and 
the whole region was soon a tented camp of fortune hunters. 
The news was passed on to the outside world, and in a few 
weeks was exciting the people in every state of the American 
union. It leaped the Atlantic ocean and spread throughout 
the countries of Europe. It seemed that the news was 
borne upon the wings of the wind to the very ends of the 
earth. By the year 1849 news of the discovery was known 
in every civilized country on the globe. 

The greatest excitement prevailed everywhere, when the 
rush of the "Forty-niners" to the gold fields of California 
began. Ships loaded with men Avent flying aroimd Cape 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 



345 



Horn. Other adventurers took the "short cut" by the 
way of the Isthmus of Panama. Ox trains by the hundreds, 
often with from forty to fifty "prairie schooners" in a single 
train, started from the states east of the Mississippi by the 
overland route to California. They wearily wended their 
way across the plains along the line of the Oregon trail, 
westward to Fort Hall; thence down through the Hum- 
boldt valley and across the Sierra Nevadas to Sutter's Mill; 
or along either the upper or lower Santa Fe trails to Santa 




THE TRAILS TO CALIFORNIA 



Fe, thence along Kearney's route to Monterey, or by the 
California "cut-off" across the Wasatch Mountains or the 
Great Basin, through the Humboldt valley, to their destina- 
tion in California. It is said that a traveler on the Oregon 
trail in the valley of the Platte River counted as many as 
four hundred and fifty-nine of these "prairie schooners" in 
a distance of ten miles. These ox trains mapped out the 
routes along which at least two great continental railways 
have since been built. 

People arrived in California by the thousands. In six 



346 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

months the port of San Francisco had grown from a village 
of a few huts to a city of fifteen thousand people, and the 
population of California from less than ten thousand to 
more than one hundred tliousand — two years later it had 
reached a quarter of a million. All articles of food were sold 
at fabulous prices, the sanitary condition of the mining camps 
was poor, and as a result the greatest suffering followed. 
Lawlessness and disorder prevailed everywhere. In order 
to assist the officers of the law the best citizens organized 
themselves into "vigilance committees," which with firm, 
though often high-handed justice, brought order out of 
chaos and established the reign of law. 

The discovery of gold in California led to the rapid devel- 
opment of that state and later of all the western states. As 
a factor in the western expansion of the United States, gold 
has performed an important part. To it is due the con- 
struction of several continental railroads, which have bound 
the American union all the more firmly and compactly 
together, to-day making San Francisco, in point of time, 
but five days distant from Xew York city. 

The wealth from the mines of the west has, since the discov- 
ery of gold in 1849, mounted into the millions. The mines 
of California alone have added a billion dollars to the wealth 
of the world. 

443. New States Admitted : Iowa— 1846; Wisconsin— 1848 : 
Oregon Territory Organized— 1848.^ — In this administra- 
tion two states were admitted — Iowa in 1846, as the twenty- 
ninth state, and Wisconsin in 1848, as the thirtieth. 
Both adopted constitutions forbidding slavery. 

In the last named year tlie contest over slavery in the 
Oregon country was fought out, terminating in the organiza- 
tion of Oregon territory, with a provision forever excluding 
slavery from within its limits. 

444. The Presidential Election of 1848.— The excitement 
over the war had hardly subsided when the presidential 
campaign began. Polk having signified his intention of 



I 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 347 

retiring to private life, the Democrats nominated Lewis Cass 
of Michigan. The AVhigs nominated the popular hero of the 
Mexican war, General Zachary Taylor of Louisiana. The 
Free-soil party nominated ex-president Martin Van Buren. 
This party cast a large vote but failed to secure a single 
vote in the electoral college. 

As in the election of 1844, so in this election. New York 
decided the contest. The Liberty party in New York in 
that year defeated Clay; in a similar manner the Free-soil 
party in 1848 defeated Cass, the vote in the electoral college 
standing one hundred sixty-three for Taylor to one hundred 
twenty-seven for Cass. Millard Fillmore was elected vice- 
president. 

In this election the Free-soil party declared itself squarely 
in opposition to all further extension of slavery, or its intro- 
duction into any of the newly acquired territory. It practi- 
cally laid down the lines along which the final struggle on 
the sectional issue of slavery was to be fought out. 

However, the contest was a personal rather than a political 
contest, in which the questions discussed in party platforms 
cut but little figure. The popularity of ''Old Rough and 
Ready" and the motto "General Taylor never surrenders" 
had most to do with the result. 

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION 

WHIG: 184d'lHo3 

445. Zachary Taylor, the twelfth president of the United 
States, was a Virginian by birth, a Kentuckian by breeding; 
his father having removed to that frontier country shortly 
after the close of the Revolution. As the son of a farmer 
in a frontier settlement, he had few scholastic advantages, 
but thrift, industry, and self-reliance soon won him a place 
among men and gave him that training which so well fitted 
him for a military life. 

Taylor served in the war of 1812, and took a conspicuous 
part in the Seminole war. His brilliant victories in the 



348 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Mexican war made him the national hero. Previous to his 
nomination for president he had had no political aspirations. 
He did not seek the nomination — it was urged upon him. 
The large acquisition of territory which the successful closing 
of the Mexican war had brought to the United States caused 
violent agitation on the question of slavery in the territories. 
Taylor, in the beginning of his administration, took his 
stand on the question of the organization of the new territory 
with a soldierly directness and definiteness of purpose which 
commands respect to the present day. 

Sixteen months after his inauguration, President Taylor 
died, and for the second time in the history of the govern- 
ment, the vice-president succeeded to the presidency. 

Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784 and died at his post 
of duty in "Washington, D. C, July 9, 1850. On the fol- 
lowing day Millard Fillmore took the oath of office in the 
presence of both houses of congress, and became the chief 
executive of the nation. 

446. Millard Fillmore, the thirteenth president of the 
United States, was, like his predecessor, the son of a fron- 
tier farmer. At an early age he learned the trade of a fuller. 
In 1823 he was admitted to the bar. He was a member of 
the New York house of representatives and later a Whig 
member of congress from New York. While in congress, 
Fillmore was chairman of the ways and means committee 
and was the author of the tariff of 1842. He was comp- 
troller of the state of New York at the time of his election 
to the vice-presidency. 

On assuming the presidency, July 10, 1850, he surrounded 
himself with an especially able cabinet, with Daniel Webster 
as secretary of state. 

His approval of the Omnibus Bill cost Fillmore his renom- 
ination to the presidency in 1852. Although the Whig mem- 
bers of his cabinet had advised his signing of the bill, the 
northern Whigs were so bitterly opposed to the Fugitive Slave 



FKOM JACKSON" TO LINCOLN 349 

Law that in the nominating convention not twenty northern 
votes could be obtained for his renomination. 

Four years later, while traveling on the continent of 
Europe, he received the news of his nomination for the 
presidency by the American or Know-Nothing party. In 
the ensuing election he received the electoral vote of one 
state only — Maryland. 

His later life was spent in dignified retirement at his 
beautiful home in Buffalo, and his name was connected with 
much of the charitable work of the city in which he had 
lived for nearly half a century. He was not a genius, but 
a "safe and sagacious statesman." He was born in New 
York in 1800 and died in Batfalo, New York, in 1874. 

447. The Newly Acquired Territory and President Taylor's 
Policy. — The advocates of slavery extension who had been 
counting on carving slave states out of the newly acquired 
territory were doomed to disappointment. Slavery had been 
abolished in the Mexican republic ten years before the war 
occurred; therefore all the territory which the United 
States acquired at the close of the war became a part of the 
public domain as free territory. Within two years after the 
closing of the war, California, the richest of the new posses- 
sions, applied for admission to the union, and, to the 
chagrin of the south, with a constitution prohibiting slav- 
ery. The southern leaders at once opposed its admission as 
a free state, thereby reopening the whole slavery question. 

President Taylor, a slaveholder himself, was a union man 
after the stamp of Andrew Jackson. He did not favor the 
further extension of slavery, though he believed in leaving 
the whole question of slavery to the choice of the inhabi- 
tants of new states themselves. Anticipating the question 
which would probably come before congress he had sent confi- 
dential agents to California and New Mexico suggesting to 
the citizens of those territories the advisability of organizing 
state governments so as to be ready to apply for admission as 
soon as congress should convene. This California had done, 



350 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and New Mexico had made some progress toward organiza- 
tion when congress convened in December, 1850. This policy 
of the president, had it been carried out by congress, would 
have disposed of the whole question in a simple and natural 
way, and was in keeping with the straightforward method 
of dealing with questions, so characteristic of Taylor's whole 
career. But to this policy the southern leaders objected, 
contending that the dividing line (36° 30') between slave and 
free territory should be extended to the Pacific coast, or that 
all the new territory should be open to slavery. So bitter 
was the discussion that followed the application of Cali- 
fornia for admission, that it threatened to disrupt the union. 
Should California come in as a free state, it was more than 
likely that slavery would be rejected in the remainder of the 
new territory. The south, therefore, recognized that the 
whole question of the balance of power between the slave and 
free states was involved in the struggle, since if the south 
lost this territory, there would be no territory left from 
which to erect additional slave states. 

448. Clay's Plan: The Compromise of 1850.— The struggle 
had not progressed far, when Senator Clay placed himself 
in opposition to the president's policy and sought to bring 
the warring factions together by compromise. In January, 
1850, he introduced in the senate a series of resolutions cov- 
ering many and varied subjects. The resolutions were 
immediately referred to a committee of thirteen, of which 
Clay was chairman, with instructions to report a bill cover- 
ing the suggestions. The committee reported a series of 
compromise measures, which after long discussion were 
passed as separate bills. These separate compromise meas- 
ures, popularly known as the Omnibus Bill, provided: 

(1) That California be admitted as a free state. 

(2) That the territories of Utah (including Nevada) and 
New Mexico (including Arizona) be organized without men- 
tion of slavery. 

(3) That the boundary dispute between Texas and New 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 351 

Mexico be settled in favor of New Mexico, and that the 
United States pay Texas $10,000,000 as indemnity. 

(4) That the slave trade be forever prohibited in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia (though slavery was not to be abolished 
there) . 

(5) That a stringent fugitive slave law should be 
enacted. 

449. The Debate in Congress over the Compromise was long 
and bitter. The struggle was indeed a battle of the giants, 
in which Clay, Webster, Calhoun, and William H. Seward 
IDarticipated. 

Clay pleaded as he never did before for the preservation of 
the union and sought to restore harmony by his series of 
compromises. In this he was joined by Webster, who deliv- 
ered on the 7th of March, 1850, a calm, though eloquent, 
speech which by its advocacy of compromise alienated 
friends and admirers in every section of the country. Web- 
ster's speech was received with astonishment in the free 
states. The north felt that it had lost its chiefest support, 
and the south that it had gained a convert in New England's 
favorite son. The great orator never regained the popularity 
which he lost on account of this "Seventh of March" speech, 
and two years later died a broken-hearted man. 

John C. Calhoun, unyielding to the last, spurned both the 
policy of Clay and that of the president and declared that 
unless the north ceased its interference with slavery, the 
union must be dissolved. In such an event he pleaded for 
^'peaceable secession." 

It fell to the lot of William H. Seward, the newly elected 
senator from New York, to champion the policy of President 
Taylor. In an impassioned speech, the eloquence of which 
stirred the whole senate, he condemned all compromises with 
slavery as being in opposition to the conscience and moral 
sentiment of the nation. He set himself squarely against 
the further extension of slavery in the territories, and 
asserted that all territory belonging to the government was 



oO't HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ^M 

free, and as such was devoted to liberty and justice, not only 
by the constitution, but by a "higher law" than the consti- 
tution — the moral law. In reply to Calhoun's plea for 
^'peaceable secession," Webster had declared such an 
event impossible, and Seward expressed unquestioned con- 
fidence in "the power of the American people to maintain 
their national integrity under whatever menace of danger." 
Before the compromise measure had passed congress, 
President Taylor died. It therefore fell to the lot of Millard 
Fillmore, his successor, to attach his signature to the meas- 
ures included in the Omnibus Bill, whereupon all its pro- 
visions became law. 

450. The Fugitive Slave Law provoked violent opposition 
in the north, where private citizens were compelled by law 
to assist in the arrest of fugitive- slaves. In many instances, 
officers from the slave states would appear in a free-state 
community and in defiance of local authority make arrests, 
even going so far as to kidnap freeborn colored persons 
whom they unjustly reduced to slavery. The north looked 
upon this whole procedure as an outrage and soon sought to 
defeat the force of the Fugitive Slave Law by enacting Per- 
sonal Liberty laws. These laws prohibited the use of state 
jails for the confinement of fugitives, and forbade any judge 
or officer to assist a slave owner in the recovery of his slave, 
or issue a writ looking to the arrest of a fugitive. These 
laws also provided that trial by jury should be granted 
alleged fugitives. Every free state, with the exception of 
New Jersey and California, opposed the returning of fugitive 
slaves. 

451. The Underground Railroad. — In 1838, the Quakers 
in Pennsylvania established a series of secret stations reach- 
ing from the border state of Maryland on the south, through 
the states of Pennsylvania and New York to Canada on the 
north, to assist escaping slaves to reach Canada. As soon 
as a slave stepped foot upon Canadian soil he became a free 
man under Canadian law. Slaves would be clothed and fed 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 353 

at one station, then secretly passed on to the next, until 
they reached their destination in Canada. These stations 
were located a day's journey apart, and the chain of stations 
became known as the Underground Railroad. After the 
passage of the Fugitive Slave Law, these underground rail- 
roads mnltiplied in number, and through their agency thou- 
sands of slaves escaped to Canada, where they became 
freemen. "The Abolitionists believed that they were justi- 
fied in opposing and thwarting the Fugitive Slave Law for 
the sake of an oppressed humanity." 

452. Minor Events.— In this administration Fillmore 
began the agitation which in later years led to cheaper 
postage. The department of the interior was created to 
look after public lands, take care of the Indians, and to 
have charge of the patent office. John M. Clayton, while 
secretary of state, negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer treaty 
with Sir Henry Bulwer of England. The treaty related 
to the establishment of a ship canal across Nicaragua, 
of which neither country was to have exclusive control. 
Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, made a tour of 
the United States and by his eloquence stirred the whole 
people, who generously responded with supplies and money 
to aid his countrymen in their struggle against the oppres- 
sion of Austria and Eussia. The government, how- 
ever, in pursuance of its policy to keep free from foreign 
entanglements extended no aid. General Narcisso Lopez, an 
irresponsible adventurer, undertook a filibustering expedi- 
tion against Cuba with a view to inducing the inhabitants of 
that island to revolt against Spain and to seek annexation to 
the United States. The expedition ended in disaster. The 
ringleader and his followers were captured by the Spaniards 
and taken to Havana, where Lopez and several of his men 
were executed. Other filibustering expeditions met a sim- 
ilar fate. Though President Fillmore by proclamation with- 
drew the protection of the United States from all citizens 
engaging in such expeditions, and in every way sought to 



OO-i HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

prevent them, still Europe became excited lest the UniteL 
States would seek to annex Cuba. With a view to prevent- 
ing such an event, Great Britain and France proposed a 
treaty with the United States, in which each nation was to 
declare its intention never to possess Cuba. The proposal 
was declined by Edward Everett, secretary of state, in an 
able state paper, in which he called the attention of the 
European powers to the fact that America proposed to stand 
by the policy outlined in the Monroe Doctrine. 

453. Death of Webster, Clay, and Calhoun.^Amidst the 
stirring political excitements of this administration three 
American statesmen, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, and 
Daniel Webster, had passed from the scene of political action 
in which they had been the central figures for a period of 
nearly forty years. Calhoun died in the city of Washington, 
March 31, 1850, before the compromise measures had passed 
congress. Clay and Webster lived two years longer and each 
pronounced eulogies upon the departed southerner. 

Calhoun, though professing to stand for the constitution 
and the maintenance of the union, still, in 1832, preached the 
doctrine of "nullification," and from that time until the day 
of his death sowed the seeds of secession and disunion. 
When he died, it is said that he requested that his only 
epitaph be the one word "nullification." 

Clay was a southerner by birth, and, like Calhoun, a slave- 
holder. And yet he would have been glad to see the 
emancipation of slavery accomplished. He regretted its 
further extension, and believed that it should be confined to 
the states where it already existed. He at all times ardently 
supported the union, and whenever he felt that the ship of 
state was in peril, came forth with a compromise measure to 
calm the storm. Clay died at his post of duty in the 
nation's capital, June 29, 1852. 

AVebster, like Clay, pleaded for national unity, and begged 
that there might be emblazoned on the national ensign, the 
"sentiment, dear to every American heart — Liberty and 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLiN 355 

Union, now and forever, ORe and inseparable!" as stated so 
eloquently in his reply to Robert Y. Hayne in 1830. Web- 
ster died at Marshfield, Massachusetts, October 24, 1852. 
Both Clay and Webster were ambitious for advancement — 
both had been candidates for the presidency and were bitterly 
disappointed when they failed to reach the goal. 

No greater oratory has ever been heard in the halls of con- 
gress than that wj;iich fell from the lips of these three men. 
So inseparably were their names linked together from about 
the period of 1812 until the compromise of 1850, that they 
have been referred to in history as the American trium- 
virate. Calhoun was unyielding and uncompromising in 
his defence of the doctrine of "nullification," and in 
his support of slavery. Clay and Webster, more concilia- 
tory, often yielded to compromise, almost to the point of 
sacrificing the very principles for which they most con- 
tended, as is evidenced in Clay's advocacy of a fugitive 
slave law in which he did not believe, and in Webster's 
Seventh of March oration. Calhoun excelled in logic, Clay 
in flowery eloquence, while Webster was the greatest orator. 

When they died, a new generation of men was already 
occupying the stage of action. William H. Seward of New 
York had sounded the keynote of the future contest in his 
"higher law" doctrine. Stephen A. Douglas and Abraham 
Lincoln had impressed themselves upon the great west. 
Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stephens were prominent 
in the south, while Charles Sumner and Edward Everett 
were recognized as New England's favorite sons. 

454. The Seventh Census — 1850. — The seventh census 
showed a population of 23,191,876, a gain of thirty-six per 
cent over the census of 1840. Of this population 3,204,313 
were slaves, of which two hundred thirty-six were in the 
state of New Jersey, twenty-six in the territory of Utah, 
and the remainder south of Mason and Dixon's line. It will 
thus be seen that the decade from 1840 to 1850 was one of 
great growth in population. During this period one and 



356 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

three-quarter millions of people came to the shores of 
America from foreign countries. Fully a million of these 
were from the British Isles, mostly from Ireland — driven 
thence on account of the famine. The remainder repre- 
sented every country of Europe. 

456. The Presidential Election of 1852.— As the time for 
the presidential election arrived, the excitement over the 
compromise of 1<S50 and the enforcement of the Fugitive 
Slave Law had somewhat abated. Both the Whigs and the 
Democrats, true to the congressional compromise, endorsed 
the Omnibus Bill. The Democratic party declared against 
further agitation of the slavery question; and the Whigs, for 
national unity and obedience to the constitution. The Free- 
soil party declared that, "Slavery is a sin against God, and 
a crime against man, which no human enactment nor usage 
can make right. Slavery is sectional and freedom is 
national." It further declared the Fugitive Slave Law to 
be repugnant to the constitution, denied that it was binding 
upon the American people, and demanded its "immediate 
and total repeal." 

The Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott of New 
Jersey ; the Democrats, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire ; 
and the Free-soil party, John P. Hale, from the same state. 
Pierce was elected with William R. King of Alabama, receiv- 
ing two hundred fifty-four of the electoral votes to forty-two 
cast for Scott, and none for Hale. In the defeat of Scott 
the Whig party received its death blow. 

PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 

DEMOCRATIC : lf<53-lti57 

456. Franklin Pierce, the fourteenth president of the 
United States, was the son of a New Hampshire farmer who 
had distinguished himself as an officer of the Revolution. 
He graduated from Bowdoin College at Brunswick, Maine, 
where he had as collegemates the poet Longfellow and the 
novelist Hawthorne. He was soon thereafter admitted to 



FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLX 357 

the bar and later served in the legislature of his native state. 
In 1833 he was elected to represent New Hampshire in the 
national congress, in which body he continued to serve until 
1842 — during the last three years as United States senator. 
He enlisted as a volunteer in the Mexican war, and was soon 
advanced to a brigadier-generalship. When nominated to 
the presidency he was looked upon as an obscure man, though 
devoted to the principles of his party. 

His administration was disturbed throughout its entire 
term by the renewal of the slavery struggle. Though a 
northern man, he joined with the southern leaders in carry- 
ing out their wishes on the slavery question. He lost favor 
at the north, and was discarded by his own party in its 
national convention of 1856, lest he might lead it to defeat. 

On his retirement from office in 1857 he spent several years 
abroad, and on his return erected the Pierce Mansion in 
Concord, New Hampshire, where he continued to reside 
until the day of his death. Pierce opposed the issue of civil 
war in 1860, but when the die was once cast he sided with 
the union. He was born at Hillsborough, New Hampshire, 
in 1804, and died at Concord, that state, in 1869. 

457. The Gadsden Purchase — 1853. — Owing to the imper- 
fect maps used at the time of the making of the treaty at the 
close of the Mexican War, a second boundary dispute had 
arisen between the United States and Mexico, which Presi- 
dent Pierce~was called upon to settle early in his administra- 
tion. Both countries claimed the Mesilla valley, which 
includes that portion of the present territory of Arizona lying 
south of the Gila River, and a section of New Mexico. This 
valley was reported to be very rich, and the United States 
desired it as affording the most available route for a railroad 
to the Pacific, which was proposed at that time. Captain 
James Gadsden, the minister to Mexico, after whom the 
purchase was named, negotiated the treaty, by which the 
United States paid Mexico $10,000,000 for her claim to the 
valley. The United States also secured the free navigation 



358 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the Gulf of California and the Colorado River. The ter- 
ritory acquired by this purchase contained 45,000 square 
miles — an area about equal to the state of New York. 

458. The Martin Koszta Affair — 1854. — In this administra- 
tion the United States won a signal triumph in the field of 
diplomacy. Martin Koszta had been a prominent leader, 
along with Louis Kossuth, in the Hungarian rebellion. 
When the rebellion failed, he came to the United States, 
and immediately took out naturalization papers, thereby 
taking the first steps toward becoming a citizen of the Uni- 
ted States, and therefore entitled to its protection in any 
country of the world. In the year 1854 he went to Turkey 
and was given permission by the Turkish authorities to go 
ashore at Smyrna, under the passport of an American citizen. 
AYhile ashore, at the instigation of the Austrian consul at 
Smyrna, he was seized by bandits, thrown into the bay, picked 
up by an Austrian boat in waiting for the purpose, and taken 
on board an Austrian man-of-war. The American consul at 
once demanded his release. This being refused, the Ameri- 
can sloop-of-war, St. Louis, then in the bay of Smyrna, 
loaded her guns, ran up her flag, prepared for action, and 
demanded Koszta's surrender at the cannon's mouth. 
Hereupon the Austrian authorities agreed to turn Koszta 
over to the French government for safe-keeping, and to 
refer the final question of his release to arbitration between 
the two governments. This proposal was at once agreed to 
by the American consul. In the controversy which ensued 
between the government at Washington and Austria, the 
United States was completely triumphant, and Koszta was 
released. This diplomatic victory greatly strengthened 
national pride. It was now felt that "to be an American 
citizen was a greater honor than to be a king." 

459. Commodore Perry's Expedition to Japan — 1852- 
1854. — In the year 1852, in Fillmore's administration, Com- 
modore Matthew C. Perry, a brother of Oliver H. Perry of 
Lake Erie fame, organized a government expedition to Japan. 



FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 359 

His mission was to make a treaty of friendship between the 
two powers, and to open the ports of Japan to the commerce 
of the United States. When Perry sailed unannounced into 
the harbor of Yedo in 1853, he threw the populace of that 
port into a panic, from fear of a foreign invasion. He was 
immediately warned to leave Japanese waters, but this he 
refused to do until he could deliver the letter of President 
Fillmore to the Japanese governor. Permission was finally 
granted him, and Perry and his suite were received on shore 
with great pomp. The letter delivered, Perry set sail for 
China, stating that he would return to Yedo for an answer 
in the following spring. Accordingly, in the spring of 
1854, he returned and was so cordially received that he at 
once negotiated a favorable treaty, which opened, almost for 
the first time in history, the ports of Japan to the commerce 
of any nation. In 1854 Perry returned to the United States, 
where he was greeted with the greatest enthusiasm by Pres- 
ident Pierce and the entire country. A brisk commerce 
between California and Japan was at once begun which has 
continued without interruption to the present day. Monu- 
ments have been erected to the memory of Commodore 
Perry in both America and Japan. 

460. The Ostend Manifesto— 1854. —In 1854 the country 
was still involved in trouble over Cuba — due to the determi- 
nation on the part of the "filibusters" to annex that island 
to the United States. The political leaders in the south 
were especially anxious to annex Cuba in order that it might 
be divided into states which, when admitted to the union, 
would preserve the balance of power between the free and 
the slave states. Hence it was that filibustering schemes 
and expeditions were secretly encouraged in the south. 
Cuba's annexation, even in Polk's administration, had been 
attempted — ^Polk having made an offer to Spain of $100,- 
000,000 for the "gem of the Antilles." During Taylor and 
Fillmore's administrations all filibustering movements had 
been promptly condemned. Pierce, knowing that the Span- 



360 HISTORY OF THE UJnTITED STATES 

ish government was in need of funds, thought the time now 
favorable to revive Polk's plan, and accordingly instructed 
the American minister at the court of ^Madrid, Pierre Soule, 
to open negotiations for the purchase of Cuba. Soule was 
soon joined by James Buchanan, minister to the court of 
London, and John Y. Mason, minister to the court of Paris. 
These three ministers at Pierce's suggestion met in confer- 
ence at Ostend, Belgium, where they prepared a dispatch 
to the government at Washington, in which they declared 
that the sale of Cuba would be of advantage to both Cuba 
and the United States, and recommended, if Spain refused 
to sell Cuba, that the United States "wrest it from her," 
rather than see it become an African republic like San 
Domingo. This dispatch is known as the- "Ostend Mani- 
festo." It created great astonishment among European 
powers, which at once entered such vigorous protests against 
it that negotiations for the purchase of Cuba were cut short. 
Pierce, though urged to do so, refused to take steps looking 
toward the conquest of Cuba by force of arms. 

461. Other Filibustering Schemes: The Walker Expedi- 
tions — 1853-54. — Pierce's administration was also disturbed by 
filibustering schemes against Mexico and the Central Amer- 
ican countries. The most noted of these was the expedition 
led by the bold and unscrupulous adventurer. General "Wil- 
liam Walker, in the years 1853-54. Walker eluded the gov- 
ernment's officers at San Francisco and made an invasion of 
Lower California and the Mexican province of Sonora, where 
he was defeated and made a prisoner. He was turned over 
by the Mexican government to the authorities at San Fran- 
cisco, where he was tried and acquitted. He at once 
organized a second expedition and set out for Central Amer- 
ica. He landed in Nicaragua, where the natives rallied to 
his standard, thereby enabling him to win several important 
battles, which so added to his renown that he was elected 
president of the Nicaraguan republic, and was immediately 
recognized as such by President Pierce. 



FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN 361 

However, in 1857, the Central American countries com- 
bined against Walker, overthrew his authority, and made 
him a prisoner, though he soon regained his liberty. This 
bold spirit was no sooner released than he repaired to New 
Orleans, organized a third expedition, and, returning to Cen- 
tral America, made a descent upon the republic of Honduras. 
Through the prompt action of the president of Honduras, 
Walker was foiled, and by the aid of a British man-of-war, 
overpowered and taken prisoner for a third time. This time 
he was court-martialed and shot September 12, 1860. 
Walker's expeditions created much excitement at the time. 
It was generally believed in the north that the leaders of 
the slaveholding sections were secretly aiding him. No 
proof, however, was ever produced to sustain this charge. 

462. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill: "Squatter Sovereignty"— 
1854. — The sober second thought of the country had 
acquiesced in the Compromise of 1850, and a general feeling 
had obtained, that the interests of both the north and the 
south demanded that the discussion of the slavery question 
be dropped by congress. Therefore, great was the astonish- 
ment of the whole country when Stephen A, Douglas, sen- 
ator from Illinois, introduced a resolution in the senate 
providing for the organization of the territories of Kansas 
and Nebraska — the bill expressly stating that the question 
of slavery should be left entirely to the settlers themselves, 
without any interference whatsoever on the part of congress. 
The method of thus disposing of the slavery question became 
known as "squatter sovereignty." This unannounced step 
on the part of Douglas came upon the people like a clap of 
thunder from a clear sky; and produced the greatest excite- 
ment. The whole slavery question was at once reopened, 
not to be closed again until the Wilmot Proviso was written 
into the constitution of the United States. 

The antislavery advocates claimed that this was a repeal of 
the Missouri Compromise, which had expressly stated that 
both these territories should be forever free. Douglas 



362 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

claimed that the Missouri Compromise was already repealed 
in the Compromise of 1850, and that therefore this bill was 
necessary in order to settle the status of these territories 
before they should apply for admission as states. After the 
most violent debates in both houses of congress, which at 
times threatened bloodshed, the bill was passed May 22, 1854. 

Congress had surrendered to "squatters" and frontier 
settlers its constitutional authority over the public domain, 
and in its reference of the whole question of slavery to these 
settlers, had invited the issue of civil war in the prairie 
states of the west. The debate in the senate, which pre- 
ceded the adoption of the bill, while not so able as that which 
preceded the passage of the Compromise of 1850, was far 
more bitter and produced animosities between the north and 
the south which it was impossible to overcome in later years. 
The bill was looked upon in the north as an outrage com- 
mitted in the name of the constitution. Charles Sumner, 
Webster's successor in congress, referred to it as the ''crime 
against Kansas." All classes of people arrayed themselves 
against it and bitterly opposed it. The clergy in nearly 
every free state spoke against it from the pulpit. Congress 
was flooded by petitions protesting against it. One petition 
alone from New England, was signed by more than three 
thousand clergymen from that section — including every 
clergyman in New England. 

463. The Struggle for Kansas. — The Kansas-Nebraska bill 
had no sooner passed congress than the struggle for Kansas 
began. The south, on its part, was determined that 
Kansas should come into the union as a slave state. The 
north was equally determined that Kansas should be free. 
At the time of the passage of the bill, Kansas was an Indian 
country, and had but a few hundred white inhabitants within 
its borders. Lying to its east was the slave state of Mis- 
souri. The south accordingly looked to Missouri to people 
the prairies of Kansas and capture the state government in 
the interests of slavery. In this she had the antislavery 



FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 



363 



element of all the northern states to contend against. An 
emigrant aid society was organized in New England, and an 
expedition of free-state men started on the road to Kansas. 
Similar companies set out from every free state east of the 
Mississippi River, and even Iowa contributed her quota of 
free-state men. Massachusetts sent Charles Robinson; 
Indiana, General James H. Lane; and New York, John 
Brown. 

Leavenworth, Atchison, Lecompton, and Topeka were 
soon founded. President Pierce appointed Andrew H. 




K 



I O W A 
A IV 



^ 



Leavea 



^■«o> 



•tec 



^V 



"-^e: 



"*^o 




l_.-... 



Reeder of Pennsylvania as first territorial governor. An 
election was held, and a proslavery delegate declared elected 
to congress. Reeder called an election in the spring of 1855 
for the purpose of electing members to a territorial legis- 
lature. At this election, 5,427 proslavery votes were cast, 
and 791 free-state votes. The census of the territory taken 
but a few weeks before the election showed but 2,905 
voters. The Missourians had invaded the territory and stolen 



364 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

the election. When the legislature convened at Pawnee a few 
months later, it adopted the state laws of Missouri and 
passed laws denying free speech and the liberty of the press 
on all questions referring to slavery. This bogus legislature 
with its bogus laws outraged not only the free-state settlers 
in Kansas but also the sense of justice in the whole north. 
The whole affair ended in a clash between the free-state men 
and the invaders from Missouri. Murders, mobs, lynchings, 
and destruction of property followed — even the life of Gov- 
ernor Eeeder was threatened, and he left the state in dis- 
guise, to be succeeded by Governor "Wilson Shannon. Mean- 
while the Free-soilers called a constitutional convention to 
meet at Topeka in October, 1855, by which a constitution 
was adopted, slavery prohibited in the territory, and an 
attempt made to set up a state government. Under this 
constitution a state election was held and the governorship 
fell to the lot of Charles Robinson. 

At this jancture, President Pierce showed his hand. In a 
message to congress he denounced the Topeka constitution, 
and through his approval the United States troops were 
called in to disperse the state legislature in session at Topeka. 
Strictly speaking, Pierce was within his powers, since no 
territory could become a state without the consent of 
congress. This consent the Free-soilers had not obtained. 
In the meantime a congressional election had been held 
throughout the states, and the old congress which had 
passed the Kansas-Nebraska bill had been repudiated in the 
north. A new house of representatives appeared in "Wash- 
ington, though the old senate remained. "When the Topeka 
constitution was submitted to congress, the house approved 
it; the senate, still under the leadership of Douglas, rejected 
it. This rejection but prolonged the struggle. The free- 
state north now renewed her efforts to save Kansas. It 
being unsafe to attempt to reach Kansas through the state 
of Missouri, a route was now established through Iowa and 
Nebraska, over which immigrants poured into the territory 



FROM JACKSON" TO LINCOLN 365 

by the thousands, piloted by Lane and John Brown. To 
offset this movement, Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina 
sent whole companies west to join Missouri in her invasion 
of Kansas. This precipitated a border warfare, which was 
marked by all the horrors incident to frontier life. Congress 
and the whole country stood aghast. The iniquity of the 
Kansas-Nebraska bill was now fully realized. But the die 
was cast — "squatter sovereignty" had invited the issue, and 
neither side shrank from the contest. Sharpe's rifles were 
sent from the north to arm the free-state settlers against 
the invaders. President Pierce came to the rescue of the 
proslavery party by encouraging the arrest and imprisonment 
of free-state men for treason. Governor Robinson was 
imprisoned without a trial, and was refused bail for four 
months. President Pierce declared Kansas to be in a state 
of insurrection. The Missourians sacked Lawrence and 
burned part of the town. The Georgians, aided by 
other proslavery men, burned Osawatomie. The free- 
state men, under such leaders as John Brown and James 
Montgomery, retaliated. Finally a new governor, John W. 
Geary, arrived on the scene, and order was restored for a 
time. But a presidential contest had placed a new man at the 
helm in Washington, and Geary, out of favor with the incom- 
ing administration, resigned. Pierce soon retired from office, 
leaving the Kansas troubles to be settled by his successor. 

464. The Assault upon Sumner by Brooks. — When Presi- 
dent Pierce sent his message to congress condemning the 
Topeka constitution, it drew from Charles Sumner, on the 
20th of May, 1856, his celebrated speech, "The Crime 
against Kansas." Sumner was a scholar of distinguished 
ability, an eloquent orator, and a master of invective. When 
he pointed his shaft of scorn, it went straight to the mark 
and stung his victim. During the course of his speech he 
took occasion to comment severely upon the conduct of Sen- 
ator Andrew P. Butler of South Carolina, who, at the time, 
happened to be absent from the senate chamber. Two days 



366 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

later the senate had adjourned earlier than usual, and Sum- 
ner remained writing at his desk, when Representative 
Preston Brooks, a relative of Butler's, entered the 
rear of the senate chamber, accompanied by Representa- 
tive Lawrence M. Keitt, — each armed with a cane. 
**You have libelled the state of South Carolina and my 
aged relative," shouted Brooks, as he rushed upon Sum- 
ner, violently striking him over the head with his cane. 
He struck blow after blow with his gutta percha weapon, 
while Keitt stood by to see that no one interfered. Sumner, 
although a powerful man, was so stunned by the first blow 
that he was unable to rise and turn upon his assailant. He 
soon fell bleeding and unconscious to the floor, and was car- 
ried from the chamber by friends who hastened to his assist- 
ance. His injuries were so serious that he was unable to 
resume his seat for three years, but during all that time the 
state of Massachusetts kept his seat vacant, as a silent 
protest against this cowardly attack upon the freedom of 
debate. 

The house of representatives made an attempt to expel 
Brooks, but failing in this, strong resolutions were passed 
condemning him for his cowardly assault, and a vote of 
censure was passed upon Keitt and Brooks. Whereupon 
they both resigned, and returned to South Carolina, where 
they received an enthusiastic welcome and were at once 
re-elected to the positions which they had just made vacant — 
such was the false idea of chivalry held in those days. This 
personal assault upon Sumner aroused both houses of con- 
gress, and created a wild storm of excitement throughout 
the country. 

465. New Political Parties: Republican and Know- 
No thing. — In this administration two new political parties 
appeared for the first time,— one, the Republican party, 
destined in a short time to gain and hold control of the 
government through one of the most dangerous and trying 
periods in the history of the republic ; the other, the Know- 



FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLN 367 

Nothing party, to live but a single campaign, and then to 
disappear from the stage of action. 

The Whig party went to pieces upon the rock of the Com- 
promise of 1850, and particularly the Fugitive Slave Law. 
The Kansas-Nebraska bill called into existence its successor, 
the Republican party. This party had its rise in the states 
of the northwest. Its principles were first given definite 
form at a convention held in Pittsburg in February, 1854. 
The party was composed of Free-soilers, antislavery Whigs, 
some Democrats, and eventually the Abolitionists and a major- 
ity of the Know-Nothing party. On account of its opposi- 
tion to the Kansas-Nebraska bill, the party was first called the 
Anti-Nebraska party. The name ''Eepublican" was sug- 
gested in a set of resolutions passed by the Michigan legis- 
lature in 1854 protesting against the passage of Douglas's 
Kansas-Nebraska act, and Republican was soon thereafter 
substituted for Anti-Nebraska. The Pittsburg conven- 
tion declared for free Kansas and free territory, and 
denounced the Kansas-Nebraska act as an outrage upon a 
free people and a crime committed in the name of the con- 
stitution. When it adjourned, it was resolved to place a 
candidate in nomination for the presidency when Pierce's 
term of office should expire. In the congressional elections 
of 1854, it won a majority of the members in the lower 
house of congress, and elected Nathaniel P. Banks of 
Massachusetts as speaker of the house after one of the most 
exciting speakership contests in the history of the country. 
It was this Republican majority that approved the Topeka 
constitution in 1855. 

The Know-Nothing party was first organized as a secret 
political party, and advocated the control of the government 
by native citizens only. During the period from 1846 to 
1856, thousands of foreigners had emigrated to America, 
and these the Know-Nothing party declared were a menace 
to the government. Owing to the fact that the members in 
the lower degrees of the society "knew nothing" of the 



368 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

plans and purposes of the leaders in the upper degrees, the 
party became known by the nickname "Know-Nothing" 
instead of the name under which it wished to appear — 
*'American. " In 1855 it discarded its secret machinery, 
and made its fight under the motto, * 'America for Ameri- 
cans." 

466. The Presidential Election of 1856. — In the presidential 
election of 1856, the free-state Democrats in the north 
united with the Republicans, while the proslavery Whigs in 
the south united with the Democrats. This made the con- 
test a sectional issue on the question of slavery. The Repub- 
licans nominated John C. Fremont of California, demanded 
the admission of Kansas with its Topeka constitution, 
opposed any further extension of slavery into new territory, 
and declared themselves content to leave the institution of 
slavery unmolested in the states where it already existed. 
The Democrats nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, 
favored the principle of *' squatter sovereignty," and 
asserted that the policy pursued by slavery agitators in the 
north would, if persisted in, "lead to civil war and dis- 
union." The Know-Nothing party nominated ex-President 
Fillmore of New York, declared for a strong federal union, 
passed a lukewarm resolution referring to Kansas, and 
adhered to its principle of "America for Americans." 

In the ensuing election the Democrats won, Buchanan 
receiving one hundred seventy-four of the electoral votes, 
Fremont one hundred fourteen, and Fillmore eight. John 
C. Breckinridge was elected vice-president. 

Buchanan's administration 

DEMOCRATIC: 1857-IS61 

467. James Buchanan, the fifteenth president of the United 
States, was the son of a Pennsylvania farmer. At the age 
of nineteen, he graduated from Dickinson College in his 
native state, and three years later entered the profession 
of law. He served in the legislature of his native state. 



FEOM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 369 

and was elected to the lower house of congress in 1820. 
He retired from congress in 1831, to accept the post 
of minister to Russia. On his return in 1834, he entered 
the United States senate, where he continued as an 
active member until 1845, when he resigned to become 
Polk's secretary of state. He retired to private life in 
1849, but four years later was appointed minister to Eng- 
land, which position he held until 1856. He was still in 
London when he received the news of his nomination to the 
presidency by the Democratic party. As a successful diplo- 
mat, Buchanan ranks high, as is shown in his splendid 
record while secretary of state and while minister to Eng- 
land, as well as in his foreign policy while president. In 
home affairs, however, his administration fell upon troublous 
times. All the misfortunes of Pierce's administration were 
visited upon Buchanan. The slavery question would not 
down; the Kansas struggle still kept up; the north and the 
south were drifting farther and farther apart. The ship of 
state had come upon tempestuous seas, and Buchanan, with 
all his years of experience, was not the helmsman to guide 
her safely through the storm. He was handicapped by a 
disposition which lacked the essential element of vigor. He 
owed his election to the solid south. His associates were 
largely from that section, and he found it difficult to break 
the political ties which had bound him for more than a third 
of a century. It was charged that he was vacillating and 
weak, and such blame and censure has been heaped upon him 
as to obscure almost completely his achievements in the field 
of diplomacy. No president ever more willingly laid down 
the burden of official position than did Buchanan in 1861. 
He was not a candidate for renomination, nor did he wish to 
be. He retired to private life March 4, 1861, on his estate 
of Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he died 
in 1868. He was born near Mercerburg, Pennsylvania, in 
1791. 
468. The Dred Scott Decision and the Repeal of the Mis- 



370 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

souri Compromise. — On March 6, 1857, two days after Buchan- 
an's inauguration, the supreme court of the United States 
handed down its celebrated Dred Scott decision. Dred 
Scott had been a slave in the slave state of Missouri, but in 
1834 he had been carried by his master to the free state of 
Illinois, and two years later to the free territory of Minne- 
sota, where, by the provisions of the Missouri Compromise, 
slavery had been forever prohibited. While in the territory 
of Minnesota, Scott was married, with his master's consent, 
but, on being brought back to Missouri, he and his wife and 
two children were sold to another master. Scott at once 
sued for his freedom, and won his suit in the local court at 
St. Louis, on the grounds that his removal to Minnesota 
made him a free man by the provisions of the Missouri 
Compromise. The case was appealed to the supreme 
court of Missouri, which reversed the decision. While 
the case was still before the Missouri courts, Scott brought 
a second suit for his freedom on the grounds that he 
was a citizen of the United States, and was therefore a citi- 
zen of Missouri, and as such entitled to his freedom. This 
suit was brought before the United States circuit court at 
St. Louis. This court granted his contention as to citizen- 
ship, but referred the question of his freedom to a jury, 
which decided that he was still a slave. The case was then 
appealed to the supreme court of the United States. A 
majority of this court held (1) that colored persons, 
whether freed or slave, were not citizens of the L^nited 
States; (2) that the act of temporary removal of a master 
from a slave to a free state did not entitle his slaves to free- 
dom; (3) that the removal of a master into any of the terri- 
tory made free by the Missouri Compromise did not entitle 
his slaves to freedom, because the Missouri Compromise was 
unconstitutional and void. This decision emphatically said 
that there were no free territories within the meaning of the 
constitution, and implied that a slaveholder could carry his 
slaves into any state of the union without surrendering his 



FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLIT 371 

right to hold them as slaves. Of all the points in the deci- 
sion, this last one produced the greatest alarm in the north, 
where it was now felt that the boast of a prominent southern 
slaveholder, that he would some day be able to call the roll 
of his slaves at the base of the Bunker Hill monument could 
soon be fulfilled. 

No decision from the supreme court of the United 
States has ever created such a storm. In the south it 
was applauded to the echo, while in the north it was con- 
demned as an outrage against human freedom and opposed 
to the advancing civilization of the day. Many northern 
states resented the decision by passing more stringent per- 
sonal liberty laws. Taney's unfortunate historic reference, 
"The negro had no rights which the white man was bound 
to respect," was seized upon in the north as expressing the 
true meaning not only of the court but of the entire south 
as well. Two justices, John McLean and Benjamin R. 
Curtis, dissented from the majority opinion of the court. 
Justice Curtis set forth his objections in an able opinion, 
which became the generally accepted view in the north. 
His opinion was printed and circulated by the Republican 
party as campaign literature in 1860. Within a week after 
the decision had been rendered, Taney's desire of thus put- 
ting to sleep the slavery question was recognized as hopeless, 
even by the chief justice himself. The whole north was 
aroused as never before, and looked upon Taney's judicial 
opinion as a political decision meant to bolster up the totter- 
ing institution of slavery. It was even charged openly that 
the decision had been made on the demand of the leaders of 
the slaveholding section. 

469. The Kansas Struggle Ends in Victory for Freedom. 
— Notwithstanding the annulling of the Missouri Compro- 
mise by this decision of the supreme court, the struggle for 
Kansas continued unabated. President Buchanan appointed 
Robert J. Walker governor of the territory. The old pro- 
slavery legislature still held the reins of government under the 



372 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

fostering care of the administration at Washington. This 
legislature met at Lecompton and called a convention to 
frame a new state constitution. Governor Geary, before 
leaving the territory, had vetoed this call, but after his 
retirement the convention had met and proceeded to adopt 
the Lecompton constitution, which permitted slavery. 
The whole contest was transferred to the halls of con- 
gress, when Kansas asked for admission to the union 
under this fraudulently adopted constitution. In congress 
the struggle was long and stubborn, but a bill was finally 
passed, known as the "English Bill," which submitted 
the constitution, for the third time, to the people of the 
territory for their approval or rejection. In the vote 
which followed in September, 1857, the Lecompton con- 
stitution was repudiated at the polls by a decided 
majority. During this controversy. Governor AValker was 
removed from his position, because he declared for a free 
count. He was charged by the south as being a 'Hurn 
coat." The action of the Lecompton convention in attempt- 
ing to force this constitution upon the territory was &o high- 
handed that even Stephen A. Douglas, champion of 
''squatter sovereignty" as he was, condemned it in the most 
scathing language. 

In the meantime, a new election in the territory had 
resulted in the choice of a free-state legislature, which in 
December, 1857, met at Leavenworth and adopted the 
Leavenworth constitution, which declared that all men were 
equal before the law. The attorney-general of the United 
States, however, having declared that the bill calling this 
constitutional convention was illegal, this third attempt to 
adopt a state constitution fell by the wayside. While the 
Lecompton constitution was before congress for its considera- 
tion, both the free-state and proslavery men were compar- 
atively quiet in the territory, awaiting tlie issue. But in 
1858 the border warfare broke out again, and the old acts of 
plunder, pillage, massacre, murder, assassination, and 



FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN 373 

destruction of property were repeated. The whole matter 
was finally disposed of in the year 1859, when a constitu- 
tional convention met at Wyandotte and adopted what is 
known as the Wyandotte constitution. On the 16th of 
October, 1859, this constitution was ratified by the people of 
the territory, and under it Kansas two years later became a 
free state. "Squatter sovereignty" in Kansas had been a 
costly experiment. Two million dollars' worth of property 
had been destroyed, many human lives had been lost, and the 
bitterest auimosities engendered. For five years the Kansas 
struggle had been a national issue, which stirred the nation 
to its very depths. No doubt much wrong had been com- 
mitted by irresponsible parties on both sides in the frontier 
struggle; but it all ended in the interest of human liberty; 
freedom had been victorious, the moral sentiment of the 
north had prevailed. 

470. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. — The year 1858 was 
made memorable by a contest in Illinois between Abraham 
Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas for the United States 
senatorship from that state. Lincoln had become prominent 
in the west because of his opposition to Douglas's Kansas- 
Nebraska act. On account of his leadership of the Eepubli- 
can party in Illinois, he became the logical candidate of that 
party against Douglas, the Democratic nominee. Douglas 
was a man of national reputation, and for years had been the 
recognized leader of his party in the senate. He was a mag- 
netic speaker, and was recognized as a debater of unusual 
ability. Lincoln, though he had served one term in congress 
as a Whig member, was not prominent in national politics ; 
indeed, his reputation may be said to date from the year of 
this senatorial contest. During the progress of the contest a 
series of seven joint debates was arranged between Lincoln 
and Douglas, which took place at various places throughout 
the state. In these debates the political questions which were 
then agitating the country were argued by both debaters with 
such skill and eloquence as to attract at once the attention 



374 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the entire country and bring the name of Lincoln into 
such national prominence as to signal him out as one of the 
ablest leaders of the new Republican party. In this cam- 
paign Lincoln lost, but with a political foresight which has 
seldom been surpassed, he so embarrassed Douglas by the 
questions which he forced him to answer that he made it 
impossible for the Democratic party of the south to consider 
his name in connection with the coming presidential contest. 

In accepting the nomination for the senatorship, at the 
hands of the state Republican convention at Springfield, 
Illinois, Lincoln responded in his now famous speech opening 
with these words: 

** 'A house divided against itself can not stand.' I believe 
that this government can not endure permanently half slave 
and half free; I do not expect the ?nii07i to be dissolved; I 
do not expect the house to fall ; but I do expect it will cease 
to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other. 
Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread 
of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the 
belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction, or its 
advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike law- 
ful in all the states, old as well as new, north as well as 
south." 

Many of his friends urged him to omit these words from 
his speech, insisting that he would lose the election if he 
did not, whereupon his law partner, William H. Herndon, 
exclaimed: "Lincoln, deliver that speech as written, and it 
will make you president!" 

471. John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry — 1859. — On the 
morning of October 17, 1850, the whole country was startled 
by the intelligence that a band of insurgents had seized the 
United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, captured 
the town, and taken a number of prominent citizens prison- 
ers. It soon became known that the leader of the band was 
Captain John Brown, who had become known throughout 
the country in connection with the free-state struggle in 



FKOM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 



375 



Kansas. Virginia sent state troops flying to Harper's Ferry, 
but their ill-planned and feeble efforts could not dislodge the 
insurgents. On the evening of the day of the alarm a com- 
pany of United States marines, under command of Colonel 
Robert E. Lee, arrived upon the scene and immediately 




hakper's ferry and vicinity 



relieved the excited militia. The marines, with sledge ham- 
mers and battering ram, soon forced an entrance into the 
arsenal, where they found Brown on his knees, dazed and 
bleeding, with two of his sons dead by his side. Of the 
nineteen raiders, two had escaped, seven were taken prison- 
ers, and ten were found dead within the fort. Brown and 
his fellow prisoners were placed in chains and taken to 
Charleston, Virginia, where they were tried for treason and 
for inciting insurrection. Brown's trial was a notable one, 
and excited the greatest interest throughout the country. 
He candidly and boldly declared to the court that he had 
planned to march into the slave districts, set up an anti- 
slavery government, and spread such terror among the slave- 



376 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

holders of the south, that they would either emancipate 
their slaves or surrender them for a money consideration. 
In this way he had hoped to bring about a revolution which 
would ultimately lead to the abolition of slavery. 

Although Brown was found guilty and executed on the 
gallows, still there were thousands in the north who excused 
his raid as the logical outcome of the squatter sovereignty 
war and the Dred Scott decision. But the event threw the 
south into a frenzy of excitement. The cry went up that 
the insurrection had been planned at the instigation of the 
an ti slavery leaders in the north, and the breach between 
the opposing sections was widened. 

472. Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and Helper's "Im- 
pending Crisis." — In 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe, sister to the 
great Brooklyn preacher, Henry Ward Beecher, published a 
novel entitled "Uncle Tom's Cabin, or,Life among the Lowly. " 
It was called forth as a protest against the Fugitive Slave Law, 
and was full of burning indignation against the wrongs of the 
slaves in the south. Its sales soon ran into the thousands. 
By the second year of Buchanan's administration 500,000 
copies had been scattered throughout the free states. The 
sale of the book was prohibited in many localities in the 
south, where it was claimed that the novel was overdrawn, 
imaginative, and misleading, and that the condition of the 
slave was much better than Mrs. StoAve's portrayal indicated. 
The circulation of the book was encouraged by the abolition 
and antislavery societies of the north, where it stirred the 
minds of the people to the profoundest depths, and aroused 
a stronger opposition than ever before — not only against the 
further extension of slavery, but also against its continued 
existence in the United States. 

In 1857 a second book appeared, which, if anything, pro- 
duced more indignation in the south than "Uncle Tom's 
Cabin." This book was Hinton li. Helper's "Impending 
Crisis in the South: How to Meet It." Helper was a rep- 
resentative of the nonslaveholding element in the south, — 



FROM JACKSOJn" TO LINCOLIS' 377 

an element which at that time represented about seven-tenths 
of the white population of that section. The "poor whites'* 
in the south had never been able to make much progress 
owing to the fact that their farms were small and that they 
were forced at all times to put their free labor against slave 
labor. Their communities were poorly provided with 
schools, and in every way their growth and prospects had 
been retarded on account of slavery. The "poor white" 
usually had no love for the African, — if anything, his feel- 
ing against him was far more bitter than that of the slave- 
holder. He felt that he was unjustly thrown into competition 
with the slave, and therefore deprived of his just rights as a 
free laborer. Helper in his book pleaded strongly for the 
nonslaveholding whites in the south, who, he declared, 
longed to see the day arrive when all slaves should be 
removed from the United States and their places filled by 
white men. His method of thus settling the slavery ques- 
tion by deportation, and his sound argument in defence of 
free labor in the south, were endorsed by matiy of the ablest 
men of the day. The indignation of the southerners, how- 
ever, found some justification in the violence of Helper's 
language and the undisguised threat of using force to put 
down the slaveholders. The book had an immense sale. 
Whole sections of it were printed and circulated free by the 
New England Abolition Society, and the Republican party 
used it as a campaign document in 1860. 

473. The Presidential Election of I860.— The Democratic 
convention met at Charleston, South Carolina, on the 23d of 
April, 1860, where it proceeded to the adoption of a platform 
before placing in nomination its candidate for the presidency. 
After a week's struggle over the question of slavery, in which 
the delegates from the northern states refused to endorse the 
extreme views advocated by the southern leaders, the con- 
vention was rent in twain. A number of the southern states 
dramatically withdrew their entire delegations from the con- 
vention. The remaining delegates, unable to agree upon a 



378 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

candidate, adjourned to the city of Baltimore, where, on the 
18th day of June, they selected Stephen A. Douglas of Illi- 
nois as their standard-bearer. The southern wing of the 
Democracy met in the same city a few days later and nomi- 
nated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The Know- 
Nothing party having dissolved had no candidate, but 
conservative men of all parties joined to organize the 
Constitutional Union party, which also met in Baltimore, 
and nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Following the dis- 
ruption of the Democratic party at Charleston, the Repub- 
lican party called its national convention to meet in the 
city of Chicago, and after an exciting contest nominated 
Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. The campaign was, perhaps, 
the most memorable in the history of the republic. 
Though it began with the usual hurrah and enthusiasm, the 
canvass had not proceeded far when there suddenly fell upon 
the people a profound seriousness. Arguments were made 
in sober vein by party speakers, and listened to in sober 
mood by thousands of voters who had heretofore been wont 
to applaud the eloquence and rhetoric of campaign orators. 
A deep conviction laid hold upon the people that the republic 
had come upon dangerous times, and was fast approaching 
the greatest crisis in its history. The southern leaders, 
sullen and angry, denounced both Douglas and Lincoln, and 
openly threatened that if Lincoln were elected the south 
would apply the doctrine of Calhoun and signify its disap- 
proval by seceding from the union. Douglas, in a personal 
campaign, took the field, and ere the canvass had proceeded 
far, came out boldly and patriotically for the maintenance 
and preservation of the union. Lincoln, standing firmly on 
the constitution, and advocating that slavery be confined to 
the states which it then occupied, patiently and anxiously 
awaited the result at Springfield, — his audience now multi- 
plied into the tens of thousands, reading by their firesides 
his speeches and debates. No matter how many questions 
were talked up, there was but one question uppermost in 



FKOM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN 379 

the public mind, — the extension of slavery in the terri- 
tories. 

Election day came and passed quietly by, in keeping with 
the orderly manner in which the campaign had been con- 
ducted. The returns showed that Lincoln and Hamlin had 
received one hundred eighty electoral votes ; Douglas twelve, 
Breckinridge seventy-two, and Bell thirty -nine. "On the 
day of the election," writes the historian Rhodes, "the poet 
Longfellow wrote in his journal, 'Voted early,' and the day 
after, 'Lincoln is elected. Overwhelming majorities in New 
York and Pennsylvania. This is a great victory ; one can 
hardly overrate its importance. It is the redemption of the 
country. Freedom is triumphant.' 

"The meaning of the election was that the great and power- 
ful north declared slavery an evil and insisted that it should 
not be extended ; that while the institution would be sacredly 
respected where it existed, the conduct of the national gov- 
ernment must revert to the policy of the fathers, and confine 
slavery within bounds ; hoping that if it were restricted the 
time might come when the southern people would them- 
selves acknowledge that they were out of tune with an 
enlightened world and take steps gradually to abolish the 
system. 

"The north had spoken. In every man's mind rose 
unbidden the question, What would be the answer of the' 
south?" 

474. Secession. — The north had not long to wait; the 
answer of the south was secession. The presidential election 
was held on the 8th of November, 1860; on the 17th of the 
following December, the legislature of South Carolina met at 
Charleston, and at the end of a three days' session passed an 
act of secession dissolving the union hitherto existing 
between South Carolina and the United States of America. 
The seed sown by Calhoun had at last borne fruit in an open 
act of disunion. This sentiment now rapidly spread 
throughout the southern states. Within six weeks Georgia 



380 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and every state bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, — Florida, 
Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, and Tezas, — had followed 
South Carolina's example. Nearly all the senators and rep- 
resentatives from those states at once resigned their seats in 
congress, hastened to the south, and lent their influence to 
spreading the doctrine of disunion. 

On the 4th of February delegates from all the seceded 
states, excepting Texas, met at Montgomery, Alabama, set 
up a government in opposition to the authority of the United 
States, and four days later elected Jefferson Davis of Missis- 
sippi president and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia vice- 
president of the Confederate States of America. 

476. Buchanan's Policy. — AVhile these events were taking 
place in the south, thoughtful men in every section of the 
country viewed with alarm the rapid spread of the disunion 
sentiment. The policy of the president and his chief advis- 
ers was to conciliate the south and *'beg them to return to 
the union." In a message to congress, Buchanan informed 
that body that "the long-continued interference of the 
northern people with the question of slavery in the southern 
states has at last produced its natural effect." He begged 
the northern states to repeal their personal liberty laws. 
He insisted that the southern states had a "right to demand 
this simple act of justice from the states of the north." 
Buchanan, however, was not a disunionist, — he denied the 
right of any state to secede from the union, but he never- 
theless arrived at the conclusion that "no power has been 
delegated to congress, or to any other department of the 
federal government to coerce a state into submission which 
is attempting to withdraw, or has actually withdrawn from 
the union." This policy paralyzed the national government 
and spread consternation throughout the loyal states. The 
cry went up from union people all over the land as they 
recalled how nullification had been suppressed by Andrew 
Jackson in 1832, "0 for an hour of Old Hickory!" Buchan- 
an's cabinet soon went to pieces, the disunionist members 



FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 381 

resigning their positions and flying to the south. A union 
cabinet at once took its place. 

In this cabinet was Edwin M. Stanton, a pronounced 
union man, and John A. Dix, who on assuming his duties as 
secretary of the treasury roused the patriotism of the whole 
north by his thrilling dispatch to his revenue officer in New 
Orleans, "If any one attempts to haul down the American 
flag, shoot him on the spot." These vigorous northern 
Democrats saved Buchanan's administration in its final days 
from complete collapse, and restored confidence in the 
stability of the national government. 

476. Last Efforts at Compromise — The Peace Conven- 
tion.— In the meantime. Senator John J. Crittenden of Ken- 
tucky proposed the "Crittenden Compromise," which asked 
that an amendment be added to the constitution separating 
the territory of the United States into a slave-state and a 
free-state portion, the boundary between them to be the old 
line of 36° 30'. The compromise provided, among other 
things, that the United States should pay the owner for all 
fugitive slaves rescued. The compromise was not looked 
upon with favor in congress. On the suggestion of the Vir- 
ginia legislature, a peace conference was called to consider 
the state of public affairs. Accordingly, delegates from 
twenty-one states met at Washington on February 4, 1861, 
and proposed an amendment to the constitution prohibiting 
slavery north of the parallel of 36° 30', and permitting it 
south of that line. By its provisions no state could pass a 
law giving freedom to a fugitive slave or to slaves accom- 
panying a master temporarily into a free state. Congress 
could in no way interfere with slavery south of the dividing 
line. The slave trade was to be prohibited forever in the 
United States. Like tlie Crittenden Compromise, the 
recommendation of the peace conference fell by the way- 
side, — a general feeling had obtained in congress and 
throughout the north that there should be no further com- 
promise with slavery. 



382 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

477. Government Property Seized: Star of the West Fired 
Upon. — Meanwhile, officers were resigning from the army and 
the civil service, and joining their fortunes with the seceded 
states. Arsenals, custom houses, and postoffices were taken 
possession of, and government property was seized on all 
sides. Of the southern fortresses. Fortress Monroe, at the 
entrance of Chesapeake Bay, Fort Sumter in Charleston 
Harbor, Fort Pickens at Pensacola, and the defences near 
Key West, alone remained in possession of the government. 
Fort Sumter had, after the hostile act of South Carolina, 
been taken possession of by Major Kobert Anderson, who 
was in command of a small force of United States troops at 
that point. His action was approved by congress, although 
he received but little encouragement from the president. 
The steamer Star of the West was sent with supplies to Fort 
Sumter, but on nearing the fort was fired upon by a con- 
federate battery, whereupon it returned to the north and 
left Major Anderson to provision his garrison as best he 
could. Nothing was being done by either president or con- 
gress; the ship of state seemed becalmed in the face of a 
threatening storm. 

478. New States : The Census : Relative Strength of North 
and South. — The federal union, at this time, comprised 
thirty-four states — Minnesota having been admitted in 1858 
as the thirty-second state; Oregon in 1859 as the thirty- 
third; and Kansas in 18G1 as the thirty-fourth. While all 
three came into the union as free states, the constitution of 
Oregon was peculiar in that it forbade colored persons 
settling within the borders of that state. 

The total population in 1860, according to the eighth 
census, amounted to 31,443,332, — an increase of more than 
eight million people in ten years. Of the white population, 
18,791,159 persons were in the free states, as opposed to 
8,182,684 in the slave states. There were 225,967 free col- 
ored persons in the north, and 262,003 in the south. In 
the north there remained but sixty-four slaves, while the 



FROM JACKSOX TO LIJ^COLX 383 

south had a slave population of 3,953,696. Many people in 
the north urged that the south would never take up arms 
against the government for fear of provoking a slave insur- 
rection in its very midst. The north, it will be seen, had 
a population of more tlian double that of the south, and in 
wealth and resources it far surpassed the southern section. 
The spirit of nationality was strong. Free schools and col- 
leges had been planted everywhere. The great west and 
northwest states had increased more rapidly in population 
than any other section. The third largest state of the union, 
Ohio (white population 2,302,838), was in this section, as 
were also Indiana (white population 1,339,000) and Illinois 
(white population 1,704,323), each with a larger population 
than either Virginia or Missouri, — the only two southern 
states whose white population reached over a million. 

Slavery had retarded the growth of the south in every 
conceivable way excepting in the raising of cotton and the 
cultivation of sugar-cane, and no doubt these industries would 
have thrived as well, if not better, in the hands of free labor. 
Indeed, as Helper had argued in his *' Impending Crisis," 
free labor in the south had been robbed of its just rewards. 
Free schools were lacking, railroads and means of intercom- 
munication had not multiplied rapidly; hence travel between 
the north and south was not fostered. On the other hand, 
railroads were numerous in the north, and had bound the 
east firmly to the west by commercial ties which could not 
be severed. Side by side, two civilizations had grown up in 
America, — the one, dedicated to progress, had kept step with 
the spirit of the age, — for the best portion of the civilized 
world had long since turned its back on slavery ; the other 
had held tenaciously to a system in which it did not at first 
believe and which even in colonial days had been abhorred. 
Its whole social and political life had come under the iron 
rule of a landed aristocracy with slavery as the chief excuse 
for its existence. The people of the two sections had little 
in common. Neither understood the other. Since the Com- 



384 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



promise of 1850 they had been drifting rapidly apart, and 
refused to be reconciled on the question of slavery. To pro- 
tect that institution, the threat of secession had been carried 
out, and when, on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln entered 
Washington, it was as the president of a severed republic. 



CHAPTER XII 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 

479. The Close of an Era. — The year 1860 marked the close 
of an era in national development which had begun about 
Jackson's time. The union had grown until it could com- 
pete for its rights with the states. The various sections had 
been held together by compromises which never did more 
than settle the dispute for the time being. An appeal was 
now to be made to the sword. The westward movement of 
the people had brought about a practical application of the 
question of slavery or freedom to soil hitherto unoccupied, — 
a question not then decided. The increase of means of 
communication made migration to the new lands so easy 
that the troublesome question could no longer be com- 
promised. 

480. Territorial Growth. — In 1860 the expanding United 
States had rounded out the home territory it was to occupy 
permanently. Like a great band it stretched across the 
middle of the continent from ocean to ocean. Its commerce 
could find protection along five -sixths of the habitable coast 
on the Atlantic; around three-fourths of the Gulf shore 
proper on the south ; and over a thousand miles on the Pacific 
coast. Not a serious boundary dispute remained to cause 
anxiety about' rights to the soil in the future. With the 
exception of a few places like the valley of the Red River of 
the North, the United States occupied the land as far north 
as was desirable owing to the cold, and as far south as the 
heat would allow the development of a vigorous people. 

POPULATION 

481. Growth in Numbers. — So many things depend upon 
the growth of population, that it must be considered con- 

385 



386 HISTORY OP THE UXITED STATES 

stantly. Not only military and naval strength, but the 
clearing of the forests, the amount of produce raised, and 
the extent of manufactures produced, are in direct ratio to 
the number of workers and the number who are to be 
fed and clothed. The unusual growth of population in 
the^United States made possible her great development in 
this middle period. Where three people dwelt in the United 
States when the union really began, twelve were to be found 
in 1830, and thirty-one in 1860. In other words, the popu- 
lation had multiplied ten times in seventy years. During 
the same time, the population of England had not doubled, 
and that of France had increased only one-half. 

The growth in numbers during this period was due even 
more largely to immigration than that of the preceding 
years. Between 1820 and 1830, nearly one hundred and 
fifty thousand people came from the old world to live in the 
new. During the next ten years, nearly six hundred thou- 
sand came. Between 1840 and 1850, the number increased 
to gigantic proportions. Nearly eight hundred thousand 
came from Ireland alone, largely because of the failure of the 
potato crop two years in succession. Almost five hundred 
thousand came from Germany, owing to political troubles 
in that country. The total for the ten years was almost 
two million, or nearly one-tenth of the entire population 
of the United States. During the next ten years ending 
in 1860, the number reached two and a half million. Ire- 
land again had contributed the largest number, followed 
by Germany, then England, then Canada, and then France. 
In the year 1860, out of every one hundred people living in 
the United States, thirteen had been born in a foreign 
country. 

482. Distribution. — Although the number of people had 
increased tenfold, different parts of the union had grown at 
different rates. People had rushed into the new states. 
At one time, Indiana increased five hundred per cent in ten 
years. New Hampshire, on the other hand, which had been 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 



387 



growing at the rate of ten people to every hundred in 1830, 
had fallen to two to one hundred in 1860. Georgia had 
fallen in the same way from fifty-one to sixteen. 



POPULATION BY STATES 





1830 


1840 


1850 


1860 




309,527 
30,388 


590,756 
97,574 


771,623 

209,897 

92.597 

370,792 

91,532 

51,687 

87,445 

906,185 

851,470 

988,416 

192,214 

982,405 

517,762 

583,169 

583,034 

994,514 

397,654 

6,077 

606,526 

682,044 

317,976 

489,555 

3,097,394 
869,039 

1,980,329 
13,294 

2,311,786 
147,545 
668,507 

1,002,717 
212,592 
314,120 

1,421,661 
305,391 


964,201 

435,450 

379,994 

460,147 

112,216 

75,080 

140,424 

1,057,286 

1,711,951 

1,350,428 

674,913 

1,155,684 

708,002 

628 279 


Arkansas 


California 


Connecticut 

Delaware . . 


297,675 
76,748 
39,834 
34,730 
516,823 
157,445 
343,031 


309,978 

78,085 

43,712 

54,477 

691,392 

476.183 

685,866 

43,112 

779,828 

352,411 

501,793 

470,019 

737,699 

212,267 


Dist. of Columbia.. 

Florida 

Georgia 


Illinois 








687.917 
215,739 
399,455 
447,040 
610,408 
31,639 


Louisiana 


Maine 




687,049 

1,231,066 

749,113 

172 023 


Massachusetts 


Minnesota 


Mississippi 

Missouri 


136,621 
140,455 
269,328 
320,823 
1,918,608 
737,987 
937,903 


375,651 
383,702 
284,574 
373,306 

2,428,921 
753,419 

1,519,467 


791,305 
1,182,012 

326.073 

672,035 
3,880,735 

992,622 

2,339,511 

52 465 


New Hampshire.... 
New Jersey 


North Carolina .... 
Ohio 


Oregon 


Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina .... 
Tennessee . 


1,348,233 

97,199 
581,185 
681,904 


1,724,033 
108,830 
594,398 
829,210 


3,906,215 
174,620 
703.708 

1,109,801 
604,215 
315,098 

1,596,318 
775,881 


Texas 


Vermont 


280,652 
1,211,405 


391,948 

1,239,797 

30,945 


Virginia . 


Wisconsin 







The uneven growth of different parts of the country' in 
population is shown by the rank of the states. Virginia, 
which had the largest number in 1790, "now ranked fifth, 
being surpassed by New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and 
Illinois. These four were the most populous states, yet two 
of them had not been founded in 1790. Indiana, the sixth 
in size, was also a new state. Massachusetts, which ranked 
as the fourth of the original states, had now fallen to the 
seventh place. Most of the old states had been surpassed by 



388 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the newer ones created by the people in moving westward. 
Of the thirty-three states making up the union in 1860, 
Oregon, the newest, had the least population ; but Delaware, 
an original state, ranked next to the least. 

The northern states had gained, as a whole, more than had 
the southern states. In 1830 there were seven million 
people north of the slavery and freedom line to five million 
south of it. In 1860 there were nineteen million north to 
twelve million south of the line. 

483. Cities. — The great modern problem, the enormous 
growth of the cities, was easily predicted in 1860. In 1830 
there had been only 26 cities having over eight thousand 
inhabitants, and no one had more than a quarter of a mil- 
lion. In 1860 there were 141 cities with more than eight 
thousand people, and two had more than half a million. 
Out of every hundred people in 1830, only six lived in cities, 
but thirty years later sixteen out of every hundred preferred 
the city to the country. Soon one-fifth of the entire popu- 
lation would be in the cities, having abandoned the farms 
and making the proper management of so many people liv- 
ing together a difficult task. Gas was piped through the 
streets of the principal cities about 1830, and was much 
feared at first because of the danger of explosion. Street 
cars, shaped like stage coaches and hitched several together, 
were put on the streets of Ncav York about the same time. 
They were drawn on rails by horses. By 1860 there were 
over four hundred miles of street-car tracks in the leading 
cities. 

RELATIVE SIZE OF TEN LEADING CITIES 

1840 1850 1860 

1. New York 312,710 1. New York 515,547 1. New York . . .805,658 

2. Baltimore 103,313 2. Baltimore 169.0.54 2. Philadelpliia.565,529 

3. New Orleans.... 102, 193 3. Bo.ston 136,881 S.Brooklyn 266.661 

4. Philadelphia . . . 93.6&5 4. Philadelphia . .121,376 4. Baltimore . . .212.418 

5. Boston 93,383 5. New Orleans . . . 1 16.375 5. Boston 177,840 

6. Cincinnati 46.338 6. Cincinnati 115.435 6. New Orleans. 168,675 

7. Brooklyn 36.233 7. Brooklyn 96.838 7. Cincinnati . . 161,044 

B.Albany 33,721 8. St. Louis 77.860 8. St. Louis 160.773 

9. Charleston 29.261 9. Albany 50.763 9. Chicago 109.260 

10. Washington. ... 23,3t>4 10. Pittsburg 46.601 10. Buffalo 81.ir>9 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 389 



EDUCATION^ 

484. Schools and Colleges. — The middle period is marked 
by the adoption of the public school system, supported by 
public taxation, in each of the new states as they formed 
their governments. As the system improved, a "high 
school" was planned to supplement the course of study 
offered in the grades. The study of chemistry applied to 
soils opened the possibility of scientific farming, and "farm- 
ers' high schools" were planned in many states. They were 
the forerunners of the present agricultural colleges. Many 
sectarian colleges were opened in the newer states. 

485. Newspapers and Mails. — The newspapers of 1860 did 
not look unlike those of the present day. Those established 
in large cities had begun to assume their present aspect of 
great business enterprises. Where the newspapers of Wash- 
ington or Jackson's time printed only the news occurring in 
their immediate vicinity, it was now possible to describe 
events occurrhig in all parts of the United States within 
twenty-four hours after they happened. The invention and 
spread of the electric telegraph made the difference. In 
1799 it took the news of Washington's death two weeks to 
reach the Boston newspapers; the inaugural address of 
Jefferson required only nine days; the annual address of 
Jackson in 1832 needed only three days; the last address of 
Buchanan was printed in Boston the morning following its 
delivery at noon in Washington. What the telegraph was 
to the newspapers the railroads were to the mails. Mail 
routes were established over railways as rapidly as they were 
extended into different parts of the country. Mails and 
newspapers meant the spread of intelligence and the 
growth of national pride and feeling. 

486. Literature. — As the wealth and leisure of the people 
increased, a higher condition of life was developed. Print- 
ing presses were multiplied and libraries largely increased. 
Best of all, a home literature had been encouraged and 



390 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

several writers of merit had been found. As the sketches 
of Irving gradually grew fewer in number, a new writer of 
almost equal charm, Oliver Wendell Holmes, appeared to 
take his place. The novelist, Cooper, was succeeded by 
another American novelist, Nathaniel Hawthorne. A group 
of poets had arisen in New England, — Henry Wadsworth 
Longfellow, James Eussell Lowell, and John Greenleaf 
Whittier. Another not less noted was William CuUen 
Bryant of New York. Two great historians, Prescott and 
Motley, were writing of foreign countries, and George Ban- 
croft had issued the first volumes of his history of the 
United States. 

These writers were developed largely by the excellent 
magazines which had replaced the trashy publications of the 
earlier time. The North American Review, Harper's 
Monthly, the Atlantic, and the American Journal of Sci- 
ence were the leaders in this new era of periodical literature. 

TRANSPORTATION 

487. The Era of Canals. — Although the cost of con- 
struction was far greater for a canal than a wagon-road, the 
weight of goods which a horse could draw on the one was so 
much larger than the other that canals were laid out to con- 
nect all the important waterways. Between 1820 and 1850, 
nearly three thousand miles of canals were built, chiefly 
in the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Maryland, 
Illinois, Lidiana, and Georgia. On these, vast quantities of 
coal, grain, timber, flour, and iron were carried to market. 
Passenger boats drawn by fast horses carried travelers from 
city to city. "A cent and a half a mile, a mile and a half 
an hour," was a famous saying which shows the rate of fare 
and speed. 

Before 1860, the canals had reached the height of their 
usefulness and began to decline. Railroads were built in 
all directions. Canals could be built only where they could 
obtain water to fill them. Railroads could be built over 



I 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 391 

mountains, but canals could not. Eailroads could be used 
the entire year. Canals were closed by ice during a fourth 
of the year. No horses could draw a boat as rapidly as a 
locomotive could take a railway train. Yet the canals had 
filled a great purpose. They had first shown that the fertile 
western prairies could feed the eastern states by carrying 
produce to them. 

488. The Increase of Railroads. — Slowly the railroads 
were extended, the locomotives and cars improved, and 
gradually they took the place of canals. They were built at 
first to connect navigable streams and lakes, but soon lines 
were constructed independent of the steamboats. The traveler 
in 1860 could ride on thirty thousand miles of railroad in 
the United States where he could have found only about 
thirty miles in Jackson's administration. The number of 
miles had increased a thousand times in thirty years. Sev- 
eral short lines connecting New York with Albany and that 
city with Buffalo were united forming the New York Central 
and Hudson River railway. It linked together the vessels 
of the ocean and those of the Great Lakes. The Erie rail- 
way was built to connect the ocean with Lake Erie at Cleve- 
land and to reach the Ohio canals. The Pennsylvania 
railroad was constructed at great expense from Philadelphia 
across the Alleghany Mountains at Pittsburg. Farther south 
the Baltimore and Ohio railway connected the ocean with 
the Ohio River. By 1860, extensions of these "trunk lines" 
had been pushed farther west. 

One could reach the Mississippi on several lines of rail- 
road, and at St. Joseph, Missouri, could reach the Missouri 
River. From this place, the mails were sent by '^overland 
express" across the continent to California. The post-riders 
constituting this overland express, on their little ponies flew 
swiftly across the plains and over the mountains, having 
once made the entire distance in ten days for a wager. Each 
rider had his own portion of road to travel, receiving the mail 
at one end and passing it to the next rider at the other. 



392 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



XATIOXAL UXIOX AND DISUXIOX 

489. National Feeling. — Slowly the union grow in dignity 
and importance. Statesmen began to prefer to serve in 
national rather than state offices. Matters relating to home 
affairs were left to the states, but those relating to all the 
people or to foreign countries were quietly given over to the 
union. Every new state created by the union out of terri- 
tory governed by the union helped turn the affections of the 
people away from the ohl states to the national government. 
The union prospered and grew rich after Hamilton had 
given it a good financial system. But the states did not '^jll 
thrive, and some of tliem even had to refuse to pay their 
debts. The peopU> had begun to divide into two classes. 
Those who believed that the states ought to retain all the 
powers not given to the national government were said to 
believe in "state rights.'' Those who believed in allowing 
a strong national government were called "unionists." If 
these differences of opinion had been scattered among the 
people of all parts of the union, nothing serious might have 
resulted. Unfortunately they fell in exactly with disputes 
between the north and south over the influence each had in 
the national government. 

490. Sectional Feeling. — Since the time when a territory 
could become a state depended largely on the number of 
people it contained, and since each state had two senators, 
the influence which any section of the United States could 
exert in the national government was dependent directly upon 
its population. In the same way, the more people a state 
has, the more members it can have in the house of represent- 
atives. The increase of population was so much more rapid 
in the northern than in the southern section, as has already 
been described in this chapter, that it was impossible to 
maintain permanently a "balance of power" in the political 
strength of the two. The north could outvote the south at 
every point. 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 39b 

The south complained of the large sums of money spent 
by the national government in improving the rivers and 
harbors in the northern states, and in building highways and 
canals through them. They thought this caused more 
people to reach that part and to settle there. They also 
complained because much of this money came from pro- 
tective tariffs levied by congress and therefore paid by both 
sections. The "internal improvement" system, they said, 
brought laborers easily to the northern factories where the 
tariffs sustained them. 

On the other hand, the people of the north claimed that 
immigrants from Europe preferred to settle in the north 
because they did not wish to be obliged to compete with 
slave labor. The north also said that the slavery system 
created social classes which were objectionable to the immi- 
grant laboring classes. Neither side looked sufficiently at 
the geography of the country which was responsible m the 
beginning for the rivers, the harbors, the connecting roads, 
and the manufactories of the north. Neither did they con- 
sider the differences of climate, soil, and productions which 
made slavery profitable in one section and unprofitable m 
another. 

INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERY 

491. During This Period, the inventive genius of America 
was constantly at work. Farm machinery had greatly 
improved. The steel plow of Jethro Wood, invented in 
1814, had come into general use. The threshing machine 
now 'took the place of the flail; the mowing machine, the 
place of the scythe and the sickle; and the reaper, patented 
by Cyrus H. McCormick in 1834, the place of the old-fash- 
ioned cradle. Charles Goodyear's process of vulcanizing 
rubber, discovered in 1839, had built up a large business in 
the manufacture of rubber goods. Elias Howe's sewing 
machine, on which he secured a patent in 1846, had lessened 
the toil of thousands of sewing-women. Letter cDvelopes 



394 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

had come into general use. The steel and the gold pen had 
supplanted the "goose quill." The discovery and use of 
kerosene, or petroleum oil, had revolutionized the lighting of 
dwellings. Friction, or lucifer, matches had displaced all old- 
fashioned methods of "starting fires" or "striking a light." 
Manufacturing machinery of all kinds had been made more 
effective. Locomotives had been greatly improved and the 
speed on railroads increased. Indeed greater comforts had 
come into the homes, and abounded everywhere on account 
of the activity of the inventive genius of America. Morse's 
telegraph had already been followed by Cyrus W. Field's 
Atlantic cable and messages had been transmitted from the 
new to the old world in 1858. Although the absolute suc- 
cess of the cable was not assured until eight years later; still 
the successful transmission of the message, "Europe and 
America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the 
highest; on earth peace and goodwill towards men," elo- 
quently told the triumph of the patient inventor, Cyrus W. 
Field. 




LINCOLN AND HIS SON "taD. 



CHAPTER XIII 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 

REPUBLICAN: 1H61-1H65 

492. Abraham Lineoln, the sixteenth president of the 
United States, is the greatest American statesman of the 
nineteenth century. He had come up from the humblest 
walks of life, his father having been a poor farmer in the 
pioneer settlements of Kentucky. When Lincoln was but 
seven years old, the Lincoln family removed to the state 
of Indiana, erected a log cabin, and began a failing struggle 
with poverty, hardship, and toil, which was the constant 
lot of Abraham Lincoln in his early life. At the age of 
twenty-one, he removed with his father's family to a farm 
in the prairie state of Illinois, where another log cabin 
was erected and the struggle familiar to his Indiana life 
was repeated. Up to the age of twenty- one, his entire 
education amounted to but twelve months of schooling, and 
yet duriug his youth and younger manhood he so applied 
himself to the acquiring of an education that he became 
one of the wisest statesmen of his time. His biographers 
dwell in detail on the untold hours he spent in studying geom- 
etry by the flickering light of a fireplace, and how through 
his study of the Bible and Shakespeare he acquired such 
skill in the use of the language as to cause many of his 
speeches to take rank with the finest specimens of English 
in our literature. Before coming to the presidency he had 
been but little in public life. He had served as captain 
in the Black Hawk war, had been a member of the Illinois 
state legislature for several terms, and had served a single 
term in congress during the Mexican war. As a lawyer, 
he had risen to the head of his profession in his state. At 
the time of the organization of the Republican party, he 

395 



396 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

became one of its most prominent leaders. His debates 
with Douglas while contesting for the senatorship of Illinois 
revealed his keen insight into the science of government, 
and brought him prominently before the country as one of 
the rising men of the nation. As a leader, he was king 
among men. On assuming the presidency, he called around 
him an able cabinet, four members of which represented 
the Democratic party and three the Republican, each man 
devoted to the preservation of the union, but all repre- 
senting different views as to how such preservation should 
be accomplished. Each man had a national reputation, and 
many predicted that Lincoln with his inexperience would be 
unable to conduct harmoniously the affairs of government 
with a cabinet representing such diverse views. But such 
was his strength of character, his self-reliance and his self- 
confidence, and such were his powers of persuasion that the 
cabinet members yielded to his will on every question where 
the great president found it necessary to dissent from 
their views. His heart was as tender as a child's, and he 
loved child nature with such tenderness and affection that 
wherever he went he won the love of children. No more 
beautiful picture can be found than that of the great presi- 
dent reading from his mother's Bible to his son Thomas, 
familiarly known as little 1'ad. His private grief at the 
death of his little son AVilliam in the White House still 
makes the reader pause in heartfelt sympathy, and forget for 
the moment the clash of arms on the battlefields of the civil 
war. No man more fully realized the peril of the republic 
than did Lincoln. On bidding his friends and neighbors 
farewell at Springfield upon setting out for Washington to 
assume the reins of government, he said, "I now leave, not 
knowing when or whether ever I may return, with a task 
before me greater than that which rested upon Washington. 
Without the assistance of that Divine Being who ever 
attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance, I 
cannot fail. Trusting in Him who can go with me. and 



f 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 397 

remain with yon, and be everywhere for good, let us confi- 
dently hope that all will yet be well." 

493. Lincoln's Policy. — On the trip from Springfield to 
Washington, the president made numerous speeches, many 
of which revealed the great anxiety he felt for the preserva- 
tion of the union. Time after time he took occasion to 
say that the incoming administration had no intention of 
interfering with the institution of slavery in the states where 
it already existed, and he sought in every way to give notice 
to the southern states that they would be protected in their 
constitutional rights the same as any other section of the 
union. He entered AYashington on the evening of March 3, 
1861, and the next day, at half past one o'clock, delivered 
an able inaugural address which clearly outlined his policy. 
He held that the union of the states was perpetual; that 
the United States was one nation and not a federation of 
states; that no state could, upon its own motion, lawfully 
withdraw from the union; that the acts of secession passed 
by South Carolina and the other seceding states were legally 
void ; and that any state opposing the authority of the United 
States by acts of violence was in a state of insurrection. 
He served notice that it was his purpose to execute the laws 
of the United States in every state of the union, and that he 
would defend the union at whatever cost. "In doing this," 
he said, "there needs to be no bloodshed or violence; and 
there shall be none, unless it be forced upon the national 
authority." He declared it the intention of the govern- 
ment "to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places 
belonging to the government, and to collect the duties and 
imposts through the custom houses." "On the question of 
slavery," he said, "one section of our country believes slav- 
ery is right and ought to be extended, while the other believes 
it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only 
substantial dispute." "I have no purpose, directly or in- 
directly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the 
states where it exists J believe I have no lawful right to 



398 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

do SO. I have no inclination to do so." His closing words, 
memorable and touching, were to the south: 

"In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and 
not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The gov- 
ernment will not assail you. You can have no conflict with- 
out being yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath 
registered in heaven to destroy the government, while I shall 
have the most solemn one to 'preserve, protect, and defend 
it.' 

**I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. 
We must not be enemies. Though passion may have 
strained, it must not break our bonds of affection. The 
mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield 
and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all 
over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the union 
when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better 
angels of our nature." 

THE YEAR 1861 

494. The First Blow Struck: The Fall of Fort Sumter— 
April 14, 1861. — The confederate authorities at Charleston 
having summoned Fort Sumter to surrender, the governor 
of South Carolina Avas officially notified that the federal au- 
thorities would send reinforcements and provisions to relieve 
the now besieged fortress, — "peaceably if it could, forcibly 
if it must." Hereupon, on April 11, General P. G. T. Beau- 
regard, in command of the confederate force at Charleston, 
summoned Major Robert Anderson to surrender. 

Anderson refused, and in the early dawn of the morning 
of April 12, 18G1, the quiet of Charleston Bay was broken 
by the shrieking of a mortar shell fired from a confederate 
battery. In an instant fifty confederate guns, from every 
available point of land around the bay, Avere playing upon 
the fort with shot and shell, — the south had defied the 
national authority, the great rebellion was begun! Though 
the little garrison could offer but feeble resistance, still for 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 



399 




FT.WACNER 



CHARLESTON BAY 



thirty-six hours the flag of the union was kept floating above 
the ramparts until the last cartridge had been loaded into 
the guns and the last biscuit eaten. Reduced to these 
straits, Major Anderson, on Sunday, April 14, 1861, sur- 
rendered the now wrecked 
and ruined fortress and 
withdrew his garrison with 
all the honors of war. 

495. The Effect on the 
North and South of Sumter's 
Fall. — The news of this 
event swept through the 
loyal states like wildfire. 
The whole north was in- 
stantly aroused. All politi- 
cal differences were swept 
aside — men were Republicans and Democrats no more — all 
were now unionists. Now that the nation's flag had been 
fired upon and the national authority defied and insulted, 
there was but one thought uppermost in the northern mind, 
— '*the union must and shall be preserved," and rebellion 
suppressed. 

On the day following the surrender, Lincoln issued a call 
for 75,000 volunteers, and the loyal states responded with 
such enthusiasm and promptness that troops began arriving 
in Washington on the very next day following the call. 
Within a very short space of time, 50,000 soldiers were 
encamped in and about the national capital. The whole 
north sprang to arms. All talk of compromise now ceased. 
Those who advocated peace at the sacrifice of the union 
were reviled as " copperheads." 

The south, on its part, looked upon the fall of Sumter 
as a glorious victory, and Charleston and the confederacy went 
wild with joy. The southerners believed that the north would 
not fight — that the northern people were too much engrossed 
with the spirit of commercialism to risk a contest gt arms with 



400 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

the south. Jefferson Davis issued a call for 38,000 southern 
troops, which was responded to with alacrity. Virginia, 
North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee, whose people had 
at first refused to join the seceded states, now defied the 
authority of President Lincoln, passed acts of secession, and 
joined the confederacy. Thus was the number of revolted 
states increased to eleven, holding within their borders a 
population of nine millions of people, more than one-third of 
whom were slaves. 

496. Davis's Reprisals and Lincoln's Blockade. — On the 
17th of April, Jefferson Davis issued a proclamation grant- 
ing letters of marque and reprisal to all owners of private 
armed vessels, who would prey upon the commerce of the 
United States. Two days later. President Lincoln pro- 
claimed a blockade of all the southern ports. All the 
resources of the north were brought to bear to make this block- 
ade effectual. AA^ithin a few months, it was impossible for 
the southern states to carry on their commerce, or hold com- 
munication with the outside world, except through the 
agency of blockade runners. The southern people could grow 
food in abundance, but they were not a manufacturing people, 
hence the south must look to Europe for supplies of arms 
and ammunition. And then, too, England and France had 
been the chief markets for the raw cotton product of the 
south. The blockade meant that the south would now be 
deprived of this source of revenue. In 1860, the amount of 
cotton exported by the southern states amounted, in round 
numbers, to $200,000,000; in 1861, to $42,000,000; in 1862, 
to $4,000,000, — these decreasing figures eloquently show 
how complete and effectual was the blockade of the southern 
ports. 

497. The Border States. — On the secession of Virginia, 
North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas, President Lincoln 
instantly recognized that the very life of the nation 
demanded that the remaining border slave states of Dela- 
ware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri be saved to the 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 401 

union cause. Delaware gave but little anxiety, but the 
struggle in each of the other three states was bitter in the 
extreme. When one of the Massachusetts regiments was 
hastening to Washington it was attacked by a mob in the 
streets of Baltimore, whereupon the soldiers were forced to 
defend themselves at the point of the bayonet. This riot 
was a most unfortunate circumstance, for it came at a time 
when the people of Maryland were ready to yield their sup- 
port to the national government, though the opposing parties 
were quite evenly divided. As a consequence, it required 
the greatest tact on the part of Lincoln in all his relations 
with the Maryland authorities to prevent Maryland from 
assuming a hostile attitude toward the government at Wash- 
ington. Lincoln, however, by his patience and forbearance 
and his conciliatory tone, finally allayed the excitement, the 
union sentiment revived, and this important border state was 
saved to the union. Lincoln, by his wisdom, was also en- 
abled to strengthen the hands of the supporters of the union 
in the border states of Kentucky and Missouri. When Vir- 
ginia seceded, the inhabitants in the western portion of the 
state remaining loyal, imitated in a good cause her bad ex- 
ample and seceded from the Old Dominion. West Virginia 
at once organized a state government, and two years later 
(1863), was admitted to the union as a separate state. 

498. George B. McClellan and the Campaign in West Vir- 
ginia. — The national government, recognizing the necessity 
of extending prompt aid to the loyal West Virginians, ap- 
pointed George B. McClellan of Cincinnati to the command 
of the troops in that vicinity. He crossed into the territory 
of the Old Dominion in the latter part of May, surprised 
and routed a confederate force at Philippi on the 3d of June, 
which encouraged the West Virginians to call a convention 
at Wheeling, and, one week later, to set up a government 
of their own. The seceded government of Virginia now put 
forth extraordinary efforts to crush this opposition to her 
own authority. McClellan, however, at once began an ag- 



402 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



gressive campaign which ended in complete success in the 
decisive engagements of Rich Mountain and Carricks Ford. 
So firmly were these forty counties bound to the union as a 
result of this timely campaign, that rebellion never again 
entered within their borders. 

499. Missouri Saved to the Union. — Although Missouri in 
convention had declared against secession by a large majority, 
yet there were many within her borders who thought Missouri 
ought to espouse the cause of the south. Francis P. Blair, a 
prominent citizen of St. Louis, led the union party. He, 
with Captain Nathaniel Lyon, of the United States arsenal 
at St. Louis, had raised 
four regiments as a home 
guard. Lyon was put in 
command of these troops, 
and determined to save 
Missouri to the union. 
He sailed up the Missouri 
River with a union force, 
captured Jefferson City, 
the capital, and put tlie 
governor and state offi- 
cers to flight. In July 

a loyal government was set up with a strong union 
governor at its head. Lyon's force, however, had become 
greatly reduced in numbers. On August 10, against great 
odds, he gave battle to a formidable confederate force in the 
now celebrated battle of Wilson's Creek. After a gallant 
struggle, in which Lyon lost his life, the union force was 
obliged to withdraw northward. The state, however, had 
been saved for the union by Lyon's earlier victories. 

500. Lincoln Calls for More Troops — May 3. — It had become 
apparent to both sides that the struggle at arms would be 
for a longer time than at first anticipated. Many of the 
young men of the south had been educated in military acad- 
emies. The military spirit in that section ran higher than in 




MISSOURI MILITARY MOV'KMKNTI 



ABRAHAM LIKCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 



403 



the north. They were accustomed to the use of firearms and 
to exploits in the open field. Some of the ablest generals in 
the regular army were southerners, among whom were Eobert 
E. Lee, Joseph E. Johnston, and Albert Sidney Johnston. 
When their states seceded, they resigned their commissions 
and cast their fortunes with the south. On the other hand, the 
military spirit in the north was feeble, and if an army was 
to be of service at all, it was felt by both General Scott, the 
lieutenant-general of the army, and President Lincoln, that 
much time and patience would be required to drill, disci- 
pline, and properly equip the troops, before aggressive move- 
ments could be begun. Lincoln, therefore, on the 3d of May 
issued his second call for troops for three years, or during the 
war. He asked for 42,000 volunteers, 23,000 men for the 
regular army, and for 18,000 men for service on the sea. 

501. Washington Threatened. — While these preparations 
were being pushed forward, the confederate armies were 




WASHINGTON AND VICINITY 



approaching dangerously near to the national capital. 
From the rear porch of the White House, President Lincoln 
could see the confederate flag displayed above the public 
buildings in Alexandria, a few miles down the river. It was 



404 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

well known that the intention of the confederate government 
was to seize Arlington Heights, the estate of Robert E. Lee, 
across the river from Washington. This was an important 
point, and, if once secured, would enable the secessionists to 
throw shell across the river into the city. Baltimore, too, 
was still giving some trouble, and it was important that a 
federal force of sufficient size to overawe the mob element 
be thrown into that city. Lincoln, acting with dispatch, 
directed General Benjamin F. Butler to seize and fortify 
Federal Hill. This Butler did so suddenly and with such 
daring that Baltimore was safe in the hands of the union 
army ere the rebellious element in that city was aware. He 
next directed Colonel E. E. Ellsworth, in command of the 
famous New York Zouaves, to seize Alexandria. This was 
successfully accomplished. 

While Ellsworth was taking Alexandria, the union force 
moved across the Potomac and took possession of the entire 
range of hills reaching from Arlington Heights to Alexan- 
dria. Thus, with Baltimore in the hands of Butler, and the 
Heights across the Potomac in the possession of the union 
forces, a feeling of relief came over the national government. 

602. Battle of Bull Run— July 21.— Immediately following 
the secession of Virginia, the confederate seat of government 
was removed from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, 
Virginia. The north began to grow impatient for some 
movement worthy of the federal forces and "On to Rich- 
mond!" had become the constant cry of both the army and 
the people. Following the union victories in West A^irginia, 
the confederate forces under General Beauregard had been 
concentrated at Manassas Junction, a point on one of the 
Virginia railroads twenty-seven miles west of Alexandria. 
General Joseph E. Johnston, with another large confederate 
force, was within supporting distance of Beauregard. 

In response to the demand for a forward movement, Gen- 
eral Irwin McDowell broke camp at Alexandria, Virginia, on 
the 16th of July, 1861, with the intention of crushing 



ABRAHAM LINCOLiq^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 



405 



Beauregard's army at Manassas. On the morning of the 
21st of July the army, came upon the confederate force 
strongly entrenched between Bull Run and Manassas. The 
two armies were about equal in strength. McDowell began 
the attack with such spirit that the confederate forces were 
being driven steadily from the field. After four hours of 
fighting, when the federal troops considered the battle as 
practically won, the unexpected arrival of General Johnston, 

with an army of fresh 
troops, suddenly changed 
their promised victory in- 
to disastrous defeat. 

503. The Effect of the 
Battle of Bull Run.— As 
the panic-stricken troops, 
on the day following the 
battle, came straggling 
into Washington in the 
face of a drizzling rain, 
they were received amidst 
a gloom which was felt, not only in Washington, but 
throughout the length and breadth of the loyal states as 
well. The south was elated, and felt that foreign recog- 
nition would now surely come. The disappointment of 
the national government, though great, was not sufficient 
to make it lose sight of the fact that the defeat at Bull 
Run carried with it a lesson which the north must 
immediately learn, — namely, that the rebellion could not be 
suppressed in a day, nor could it ever be suppressed until the 
raw troops of the north had been drilled into well-disciplined 
and well-trained soldiers. Congress, the very day after the 
battle, voted to raise an army of 500,000 men, and made an 
appropriation of $500,000,000 for prosecuting the war to a 
successful issue. This meant war on a larger scale than the 
continent had ever before known, and gave notice to the 
south that the north was desperately in earnest. W^ithin 







Washin^^^ 






Alexandria » 


^Centervllle 


\ 




\ V I < R G 


■N 


N I A J|l 


\bu11Ruii 






Mauassas \— ^,^ 


^ 





BUI^L, RUN AND MANASSAS 



406 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

a surprisingly short space of time, 150,000 troops were occu- 
pying the tented camps on Arlington Heights and other 
prominent points about the city of Washington. 

504. McClellan Succeeds Scott. — In October, General Win- 
field Scott, now grown feeble with age, resigned, and Pres- 
ident Lincoln appointed General George B. McClellan to 
the command of all the armies of the United States. Mc- 
Clellan stood in high favor with the soldiers and with the 
people. He was a graduate of West Point, and had been 
recognized by the war department for many years as an or- 
ganizer of unusual ability. On the earnest solicitation of 
President Lincoln, he had accepted the command of the 
forces which quelled the rebellion in the counties of western 
Virginia. Fresh from these victories, he novv came to the 
head of an army of 200,000 men. He threw himself with 
eaergy into the business of organizing and building up an 
army, and in a short time made the splendidly drilled and 
disciplined troops, comprising the army of the Potomac, 
the pride of the union. 

505. Naval Operations. — In carrying out the plan of mak- 
ing the blockade of the southern ports as effectual as possible, 
several important naval expeditions were undertaken. In 
October an expedition under command of Commodore 
Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman entered the har- 
bor of Port Royal, South Carolina, and reduced the two con- 
federate forts at that point. 

Other important points along the coast were taken, among 
them Hatteras Inlet, on the coast of North Carolina. Before 
the close of the year, the blockade of the southern ports 
from Virginia to Texas had been undertaken by the northern 
navy, and made as effective as possible considering the small 
navy which the government had at its command at the break- 
ing out of the war. When the first shot was fired on Sumter, 
there were but forty-two vessels in commission constituting 
the United States navy. By the close of the year 1861, 
264 armed vessels had been put into service, and by the close 



ABRAHAM LIl^COLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 407 

of the war tlie total was little short of 700, carrying nearly 
5,000 guns and more than 50,000 sailors. The vigilant 
northern sailors captured during the war 1,500 prizes with an 
aggregate value of $30,000,000. It is estimated that at the 
close of the war the south had $300,000,000 worth of cotton 
stored in warehouses waiting for shipment. 

506. Foreign Relations. — England and France depended 
upon the south for the raw cotton to supply their numerous 
factories. The southerners reasoned that these countries 
would come to their assistance as a matter of self -protection, 
and that foreign intervention would prove a strong factor in 
forcing the north to concede the independence of the 
southern confederacy. England had, however, long since 
placed herself squarely against the further spread of slavery, 
and her people, of all nations, would have been the last in 
the world to encourage the upbuilding of a government 
whose *' cornerstone" was slavery. 

Nevertheless, much sympathy for the south was manifested 
among certain classes in England. The English government 
itself was not • altogether friendly to the United States, 
though the moral sentiment of the vast majority of the Eng- 
lish people was against interference. While the English, the 
French, the Austrian, and other European governments 
recognized the south as a belligerent power, they could not 
be induced to recognize the independence of the confederacy. 

The English authorities, however, permitted confederate 
privateers, — among them the famous cruiser, Alabama — to 
be built and fitted out in English dock-yards to prey upon 
the commerce of the United States. 

507. The Trent Affair. — James M. Mason of Virginia had 
been appointed commissioner from the southern confederacy 
to the court of England, and John Slidell of Louisiana to 
the court of France. On November 8, Captain Charles 
Wilkes of the San Jacinto intercepted the Trent, the British 
mail steamer on which they were going to England, and 
forcibly took from her as prisoners Mason and Slidell and 



408 



HISTOKT OF THE UKITED STATES 



their secretaries. England at once demanded the release of 
the envoys, and an apology for such a breach of interna- 
tional law. The international rights for which England 
contended were such as the United States herself had previ- 
ously insisted upon, therefore the president promptly 
disavowed the act, and the prisoners were given over to 
the British minister. 

608. Situation at the Close of the Year. — At the close of 
the year 1861, both the confederate and union armies were 
well organized. The north had 640,000 men in the field, while 
the confederates had 210,000, and had issued a call for 
400,000 volunteers. Through Lincoln's policy, the slave 
states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri had 
been held in the union, and West Virginia had been severed 
from the Old Dominion. The United States government 
had established a blockade of the southern ports. 

Although defeated in West Virginia, the arms of the 
south had been successful in the first great battle of the 
war— Bull Run. The confederate government securely held 
eastern Virginia, with its capital at Richmond, and had 
erected formidable defences on the Mississippi River from 
Columbus, Kentucky, to Forts Jackson and Warren, below 
New Orleans. It had also established a line of defence 
from Columbus, Kentucky, eastward to the Cumberland 
Mountains. Along this line had been erected strong fortifi- 
cations at Columbus, Fort Henry, Donelson, Bowling Green, 
Mill Springs, and Cumberland Gap. 

IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1861 



Name of 
Battle 



Bull Run 

Wilson'sCreek 



Ball's Bluff . 
Belmont . . . 



Place Where 
Fought 



BuU Run, Va. 

Wilson's Creek, 

Mo. 
Ball's Bluff, Va. 
Belmont, Mo. 



Date 



July 21 

Aiig. 10, 

Oct. 21 , 
Nov. 7 . 



Commanding 

General of 
Union Army- 



Brig. -Gen. I. Mc- 
Dowell 

Brig. -Gen. N. 
Lyon 

Gen. C. P. Stone 

Brig. -Gen. U. S. 
Grant 



Commanding 
General of Con- 
federate Army 



Gen. J. E. John- 
ston 

Brig. -Gen. B.Mc- 
Culloch 

Gen. N. G.Evans 

Maj.-Gen. L. L. 
Polk 





WILLIAM T. SHERMAN 
ULYSSES S. GRANT 



DAVID G. KAKRAtiCrX 
PHILIF H. SHICKinAN 



U>rioN Commanders 



I 



ABRAHAM LINCOLK AND THE CIVIL WAR 409 

THE YEAR 1862 

509. Plan of Operations for 1862. — At the beginning of 
the year 1862, the government at Washington planned for 
a vigorous prosecution of the war. It was resolved (1) to 
make the blockade of the southern ports more effective; (2) 
to capture the confederate fortresses along the Mississippi 
River, open that river to navigation, and cut the confederacy 
in twain; (3) to break the confederate line of defences from 
Cumberland Gap to the Mississippi, and to push a union 
army southward through Kentucky and Tennessee to some 
point on the coast ; (4) to capture Richmond and overthrow 
the confederate government. 

IJs^ THE WEST 
MISSOURI HELD AXD ARKANSAS RECLAIMED 

510. Battle of Pea Ridge— March 7-8.— Early in 18G2, 
General Earl Van Dorn was sent to take command of a 
confederate force, operating in the corners of the three 
states, Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas. General Samuel 
Curtis, with a union force, crossed into Arkansas, and forti- 
fied a strong position on Pea Ridge in the Ozark Moun- 
tains, where he was attacked by General Van Dorn, 
whose forces were beaten and put to rout. The south never 
again attempted organized warfare in Missouri, and later 
in the year the insurgents were again defeated near Pea 
Ridge, and Missouri was from that time on fairly established 
in loyalty to the union. The following year, Arkansas was 
reclaimed, and President Lincoln asked that its represent- 
atives and senators be readmitted to congress. 

DOWN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY WITH GRANT 

511. The Union Victories at Fort Henry — Feb. 6, and 
Fort Donelson — Feb. 16. — The task of beginning opera- 
tions in the west fell upon General Ulysses S. Grant, in 
command of a division of the western army in the district 
of Cairo. He was to cooperate with a gun-boat fleet under 
Commodore Andrew H. Foote, which was to ascend the 



410 



HISTORY OF THE Ui^ITED STATES 



Tennessee Eiver and bombard Fort Henry. This the fleet 
promptly did, forcing the fort's surrender within two 
hours. Commodore Foote was directed to return to the 
Ohio Eiver, make for Fort Donelson at once, and prepare 
for a combined attack. On the 12th of February, Grant's 
forces completely surrounded Donelson, which was held by 

,-, ,.-^ 20,000 men under 



command of Generals 
Gideon J. Pillow, 
John B. Floyd, and 
Simon B. Buckner. 
The confederate gen- 
erals, in a council of 
war, decided to cut 
their way through 
Grant's lines. Just 
before dawn on the 
morning of the 15th, 
10,000 of the besieged 
force came pouring 
through the woods 
and fell upon the 
union right, but they 
met a severe repulse. 
Hereupon General 
Buckner, at daybreak 
of the 16th, sent to 
Grant asking terms 
of capitulation. 
Grant's reply, "No terms except unconditional and imme- 
diate surrender can be accepted. — I propose to move imme- 
diately upon your works," was cheered to the echo in the 
north, and *' Unconditional Surrender" Grant became the 
hero of the western army. Fort Donelson surrendered, and 
General Buckner and 15,000 troops became prisoners of 
war. 




oi^^ 



DOWN THE MISSISSIPPI 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 411 

512. Effect of These Victories.— The capture of Forts Henry 
and Donelson had broken the confederate line of defences, 
and they were compelled to fall back from Columbus on the 
Mississippi, and Bowling Green in central Kentucky. Thus 
the state of Kentucky was freed from confederate forces, 
and the Mississippi was open as far south as Island Number 
Ten. General Buell now hastened, with a union force, to oc- 
cupy Nashville, Tennessee, which was abandoned by the now 
alarmed confederate general without even an attempt to hold 
it. The confederates then fell back and concentrated their 
forces at Corinth in the northeast corner of Mississippi. 

513. Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing— April 6-7.— 
Corinth was situated at the crossing of two very important 
southern railroads, — one connecting'Memphis with the east, 
the other leading south to the cotton states. After the 
capture of Fort Donelson, General Henry W. Halleck, at 
the head of the army of the west, ordered the army of the 
Tennessee, to ascend the Tennessee River, to encamp at 
Pittsburg Landing, about twenty miles north of Corinth, and 
to prepare for an attack upon that strategic point. General 
Grant assumed command of these forces, and awaited the 
arrival of General Baell with the army of the Ohio, before 
attacking the confederate intrenchments. General Johnston 
decided to attack the federal forces before Buell 's reinforce- 
ments could arrive. Early on the morning of April 6, the 
confederates rushed through the woods and drove the union 
pickets within the lines. An old log meeting-house called 
Shiloh, some two or three miles from Pittsburg Landing, was 
the key to the union position. General William T. Sher- 
man commanded here, and so inspired confidence in his raw 
recruits that they rendered services worthy of veterans. 
But the union army fell steadily back before the dash and 
the impetuous charge of the southern troops, who by noon 
were in possession of the union camps. The loss of General 
Johnston, who had fallen on the field of battle early in the 
afternoon, somewhat checked the confederate advance, and 



412 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

before the day closed the attack had spent its force. Night 
came, and with it Bu ell's reinforcements. 

On the 7th, Grant's forces became the attacking party, and 
all day long the confederates were driven steadily from the 
field, until they beat a hasty retreat, — falling back unpur- 
sued to their former position at Corinth. 

614. Capture of New Madrid — March 14, and Island Num- 
ber Ten— April 8: Opening of the Upper Mississippi. — In 
the meantime, General John Pope had attacked New 
Madrid on the Mississippi River. The confederate gun- 
boats were soon disabled, and the garrison fled to Island 
Number Ten, a few miles south, leaving ammunition, guns, 
and tents behind. Island Number Ten was forced to sur- 
render on April 8. The Mississippi was thus opened as far 
south as Fort Pillow, near Memphis. 

515. Capture of Corinth — May 30. — After the battle at 
Pittsburg Landing, General Henry W. Halleck, arrived 
from St. Louis and took command in the field. Grant advised 
an immediate attack upon Corinth before the shattered 
southern forces would have time to recover, but it was the 
30th of April before General Halleck commenced his slow 
advance. On the 30th of May he entered the besieged city — 
Beauregard having evacuated on the night of May 29. 

General Halleck was soon called to Washington to assume 
the duties of general-in-chief of all the armies of the 
republic, and Grant became department commander, with 
headquarters at Corinth. 

516. Effects of Shiloh and Island Number Ten.— After 
the capture of Corinth, Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi, 
was abandoned by the confederates, and the union 
gunboats proceeded to Memphis. After a fierce contest, 
the national forces took possession of that city (June 6), 
thus opening the Mississippi as far south as this point and 
gaining control of the railroad connecting Memphis with 
Charleston, South Carolina. The only railroad connection 
which the confederate states at the west now had with Eich- 



AJUiAHAM LINCOLN AND TRY. CIVIL WAR 413 

moiid was by the single line of railroad running east from 
Vicksbnrg. 

Thus by the middle of the year 18G2 the state of Ken- 
tucky and all of western Tennessee had been practically 
cleared of the confederate army. 

A T THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER WITH FARRAQ UT 

517. The Opening of the Lower Mississippi: Capture of 
New Orleans — April 18 to May 1. — On the west bank of the 
Mississippi River, comparatively free from attacks by the 
federal forces, were three great states, — Louisiana, Texas, and 
Arkansas, — with their important tributaries to the Missis- 
sippi. These states could not only give their quota of sol- 
diers to the confederacy, but could furnish provisions of all 
kinds, and an abundance of cotton sufficient to meet the 
entire war expenses of the south. New Orleans, the largest 
southern city, had important workshops and facilities for 
manufacturing weapons of war and for building ironclad 
ships. Realizing the importance of securing New Orleans, 
the national government, early in 1862, commissioned Com- 
modore David G. Farragut to reduce the forts at the mouth 
of the Mississippi and take New Orleans. For five days and 
nights an unremitting fire was kept up, which inflicted great 
damage. This method of war, however, was too slow for 
Farragut, who now decided to run the batteries, and before 
dawn on the morning of the 24th accomplished such a 
brilliant feat in naval warfare as to rank him among the 
great leaders of the civil war, and give him his ''passport to 
fame immortal." The forts were soon silenced, and the 
entire confederate fleet of fifteen vessels, — two of them 
ironclad, one the iron ram Manasses, — was either captured 
or destroyed, with the loss of but one ship from Farragut's 
squadron of wooden vessels. Farragut arrived before New 
Orleans on the 25th of April and demanded the surrender of 
the city. On the 29th of April, the flag of the union was 
raised above the city hall, and on May 1 General Butler, 



414 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

who had accompanied Farragut with a military force, took 
formal possession of the city. 

This capture of New Orleans was a severe blow to the 
south. It crushed the rebellion in Louisiana, separated 
Texas and Arkansas from the confederacy, took from it one 
of the greatest grain and cattle countries within its limits, 
and gave to the union government the lower Mississippi 
River as a base of operations. 

IN THE CENTER 
IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE WITH BUELL AND ROSECRANS 

518. Bragg Invades Kentucky. — Beauregard having 
resigned on account of ill-health. General Braxton Bragg suc- 
ceeded to his command, and at once planned an invasion of 
Kentucky. General Buell at the time was advancing in the 
direction of Chattanooga, but marched so slowly that Bragg 
reached there first and hastened northward into Tennessee. 
Now began the race for Louisville, — Buell entering just a 
few days in advance of Bragg. The union commander soon 
turned south, and the hostile armies met at Perryville 
(October 8). After a stubborn conflict, Bragg retired under 
cover of the night and retreated from Kentucky. 

519. Battle of Murfreesboro — Dec. 31 to Jan. 2. — General 
Bragg, after his retreat from Perryville, again moved 
northward and concentrated his forces at Murfreesboro. 
General William S. Rosecrans, who had succeeded Buell 
in command of the union forces, advanced to attack 
Bragg. In the early dawn of December 31, the armies met. 
The confederates, at first successful, were held in check by 
Sheridan's division until Rosecrans re-formed his lines on 
a favorable rise of ground and stationed his artillery. On 
January 2, Bragg renewed the attack, but Rosecrans had 
been given time to make his position impregnable. Despair- 
ing of victory, Bragg retreated, leaving middle Tennessee 
free from confederate forces. 



ABKAHAM LIXCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 



415 



IN THE EAST 



THE ALARM AT HAMPTON ROADS— THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC 

520. The Confederate Ironclad Merrimac Threatens to 
Raise the Blockade — March 8. — Shortly after the fall of 
Sumter, the United States government had ordered the 
destruction of the most important of all its navy yards, — 
that at Norfolk, Virginia, — rather than see it fall into the 
hands of the confederacy. At that time a large number of 
vessels were scuttled, — among them the fine old frigate 
Merrimac. When Norfolk fell into the hands of the seces- 
sionists, the Merrimac was raised, converted into an ironclad 
ram, and directed to raise the blockade in Hampton Roads 

at the mouth of the James 




HAMPTON ROADS 



River. On the 8th of March, 
the Merrimac encountered 
the Cumberland, which 
poured broadside after broad- 
side into her strange looking 
antagonist, but all to no pur- 
pose, — her shot glanced from 
the Merrimac 's sloping roof 
without inflicting the slight- 
est damage. She then ram- 
med the Cumberland with 
her iron beak, driving such a hole in her side that she soon 
sank, carrying down nearly all on board, — her flag still flying 
at the mast, and her guns bidding defiance at the water's 
edge. The Merrimac next destroyed the Congress, and sought 
to engage the Minnesota, but that vessel having run aground 
in shallow water, the Merrimac steamed back to Norfolk, 
intending to return to complete her work on the morrow. 
521. The Battle between the Ironclads — March 9. — On the 
9th of March, the joyful news came over the wires that the 
Merrimac had been vanquished by the little Monitor and 
driven under cover at Norfolk. Immediately there went up 



416 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the question, whence came tlie Monitor? — a name heretofore 
unknown to the American navy. This vessel, too, was an 
ironclad, the invention of John Ericsson, and had arrived 
from New York at Hampton Koads at midnight on the 8th 
of March, and ancliored beside the Minnesota. The Merri- 
mac, returning, was about to open fire on the Minnesota, 
when there suddenly shot out from under her prow Ericsson's 
Monitor, — and the battle between the two ironclads began. 
For three hours the struggle continued, when the Merrimac 
gave up the contest and withdrew to Norfolk, leaving the 
*' Yankee cheesebox," as the Monitor was called on account 
of her appearance, in undisputed possession of Hampton 
Roads. The Monitor had saved the union cause. Upon no 
single event of the war did greater issues hang. 

ON TO RWHMOND 

522. McClellan's Peninsular Campaign. — McClellan had 
taken command of the army of the Potomac immediately 
after the Bull Run disaster. His task was to crush the con- 
federate army of Virginia and overthrow the confederate gov- 
ernment at Richmond. This he was urged to accomplish at the 
earliest possible date. But, for some unaccountable reason, he 
remained inactive, occupying himself with brilliant reviews 
and giving no promise of a forward movement. Autumn 
passed and winter came, and still ''all was quiet on the 
Potomac." The whole north now became impatient. "On to 
Richmond!" became the incessant cry of the public press, 
of the people, of congress, and, indeed, of the splendid army 
itself. Patience at last reached its limit, and President 
Lincoln, early in January, 1862, issued a peremptory order 
for a forward movement. McClellan still delayed two months 
longer, and the last of March had arrived ere he began 
embarking his army on transports at Washington. He 
then passed down the Potomac River, landed at Fortress Mon- 
roe on April 2, 1862, and began the disastrous peninsular 
campaign. 



» 




f 





ROUEKT E. TJEE JEFKKKSON OAVIS 

.JOSEPH E. .JOHNSrON THOMAS J. JACKSON 



ABKAHAM LINCOLIS^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 



417 



The York and the James rivers run nearly parallel from a 
point above Eichmond to the points where the two streams 
empty their waters into the Chesapeake Bay, at a distance of 
about twenty miles apart. The strip of land lying between 
these two streams is called the peninsula. McClellan's 
plan was to move up this peninsula, carry his supplies on 
boats up the York River, and take Richmond. 

523. Yorktown Taken— April 4 : Battle of Williamsburg— 
May 6-6. — McClellan at once appeared before Yorktown 
(April 4), and wasted a month in a useless siege. When he 
finally decided to reduce its fortifications by a bombardment, 
Y^'orktown was quietly evacuated. General Joseph E. Hooker 
overtook the retreating confederates at Williamsburg on 
May 5, and on the following day captured that point. 

624. Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines — May 31 and 
June 1. — General Joseph E. Johnston, chief in command of 
the confederate forces, perceiving McClellan's timidity, fell 
upon the union advance encamped along the Williamsburg and 

Richmond rail- 
road, between 
Fair Oaks Station 
and Seven Pines, 
only six miles 
from Richmond. 
In the two days' 
bloody battle 
which ensued, 
the fighting was 
most desperate. 
In the engagement. General Johnston was wounded and car- 
ried from the field, and the confederates finally gave up the 
contest, retiring to Richmond. 

While the union army won the battle, the confederate 
army was not crushed, and it now came under the leadership 
of General Robert E. Lee. 




Penlnsnlar Campaigrn 



418 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



526. stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley: 
Washington Threatened. — At this juncture, the unwelcome 
news was received at the national capital that General 
Thomas J. Jackson was moving down the Shenandoah val- 
ley, sweeping everything before him and threatening Wash- 
ington. At the battle of Bull Run, Jackson, on account of 
his firm stand, had won the nickname "Stonewall." Lin- 
coln, recognizing in him a general of great ability, had good 
cause to be alarmed at the turn affairs had taken, and at 
once ordered McDowell north to the defence of the national 
capital. He then directed General Nathaniel P. Banks at 
Harper's Ferry, and General John C. Fremont at Franklin, to 
move to the Shenandoah valley and capture the raiding 
general. But that dashing leader, having accomplished the 
purpose for which he was sent north, — to threaten Washing- 
ton and thereby force the return of McDowell's army to the 
north, — saw it was high time that he rejoin his chief at 
Richmond. He accordingly turned southward, and, by a 
series of brilliantly and rapidly executed movements, out- 
generalled Fremont, Banks, and several other union com- 
manders, and carried his entire force down by rail to join Lee 
in his contest with McClellan. 

526. The ''Seven Days' Fight" before Richmond— June 
26 to July 1. — McClellan, disappointed at not receiving rein- 
forcements under McDowell, and fearful lest he could not 
protect his supplies on the York River, resolved on changing 
his base to the James River, — an undertaking which required 
the greatest skill in its accomplishment. It was necessary 
for his army to shield and defend a train of 5,000 wagons 
loaded with provisions; 25,000 head of cattle; and large 
quantities of reserve artillery and munitions of war. 

Lee, unaware of McClellan's intention, fell upon the 
union right at Mechanicsville (June 20), thereby precipitating 
the series of battles known as the "Seven Days' Fight" 
before Richmond. Jackson failed to arrive on the 26th, thus 
causing Lee's failure at Mechanicsville. However, on the 



n 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 419 

following day, Jackson's troops, elated with their northern 
victories, came rolling into the station at Richmond, and 
Jackson hastened to join his chief on the battlefield of 
Gaines's Mill (June 27), where Lee had attacked General 
Fitzhugh Porter. Porter maintained an unequal contest w^ith 
this combined confederate army through all that day, but 
he was finally forced from the field. On the morning of 
the 28th, he burned his bridges behind him, and hastened 
forward to cover the retreat of McClellan's army. On the 
29th, a battle was fought at Savage's Station, in which the 
confederates were repulsed, and on the 30th another at 
White Oak Swamp, where the union army repeatedly drove 
back the confederate advance and remained in possession of 
the field until nightfall, when it retired. On the same day 
was fought the fierce battle of Fraizer's Farm. The follow- 
ing day (July 1), McClellan made his final stand at Malvern 
Hill. His position was here impregnable. Lee, however, 
unwilling to give up the contest, gave battle at Malvern, but 
his ill-advised attack resulted only in the useless destruction 
of life. Lee, foiled and disappointed, finally gave up the 
battle; and on the night of July 1, 1862, under cover 
of a storm, McClellan retired to Harrison's Landing, on the 
James River. 

627. The Effect of McClellan's Failure to Capture Rich- 
mond. — The retreat from the York to the James was said by 
McClellan's friends to have been conducted most skillfully, 
but this did not appease the north. The country had little 
use for a general who was great only in flight. The campaign 
which had begun with such high hopes to the country was 
condemned as an inexcusable failure and the army of the 
Potomac and its now much abused leader were soon recalled 
to the north. The gloom which fell upon the north at this 
time was as great as that which had followed the disaster 
at Bull Run. The loyal governors recommenced recruiting, 
and President Lincoln, on the very day McClellan had 
accomplished his change of base (July 1), issued a call for 



420 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

300,000 volunteers. "We are coming, Father Abraham, 
300,000 strong," was the refrain which went up from every 
recruiting station throughout the length and breadth of the 
loyal states. 

POPE'S ARMY OF VIRGINIA MEETS WITH DISASTER 

528. The Army of Virginia Created. — In the state of Vir- 
ginia, were three separate and distinct military departments 
over which McClellan, who commanded the army of the 
Potomac, had no control — that of the Rappahannock under 
General McDowell, that of the Shenandoah under General 
Banks, and that of the western part of the state under Gen- 
eral Fremont. Following the raid of Stonewall Jackson 
in the Shenandoah valley, these three departments were 
united and became the army of Virginia, with General John 
Pope as its commanding officer. Following the unsuccessful 
peninsular campaign, the country now looked to Pope to re- 
trieve McClellan's failure. 

629. Pope's Campaign and the "Second Bull Run." — Pope 
posted his army at the eastern base of the Blue Ridge Moun- 
tains in the upper valley of the Rappahannock, so that he 
could protect the Shenandoah valley, hold the Rappahannock 
River from its source to its mouth, and be within safe dis- 
tance of Washington, should his presence be needed there. 
Shortly after the "Seven Days' Fight," Lee had sent Stone- 
wall Jackson north on another of his daring raids, and a 
little later General James Longstreet was sent to join with 
Jackson in defeating Pope before McClellan could come to 
his assistance. On August 29 the second battle of Bui] Run 
followed. On that day the issue was about equal on both 
sides, but on the 30th, Longstreet having arrived, the battle 
ended disastrously to the union arms. On September 2, 
the army of Virginia was merged into the army of the 
Potomac, with McClellan again the chief general in the 
field under Halleck. Pope was transferred to a western 
command. 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 



421 



LEE CROSSES THE POTOMAC— ALARM AT THE NORTH 

630. Invasion of Maryland. — Bull Run was hardly won ere 
Lee, with an army of 60,000 men, crossed the Potomac at 
Leesburg and began the invasion of Maryland. McClellan at 
once gave chase with the army of the Potomac, numbering 
more than 80,000 men. Lee now passed westward through 
the gaps of South Mountain, hoping to reach Pennsylvania 
by the little mountain valley west of that range of the Blue 
Ridge. McClellan by this time was close upon Lee's heels, 
and on the loth, brought Lee to bay on Antietam Creek — a 
little stream entering into the Potomac a short distance 
above Harper's Ferry. 

531. Battle of Antietam — September 17. — On the early dawn 
of the morning of the 17th of September, General Hooker — 
"fighting Joe Hooker," as his troops called him — opened the 
engagement on the 
union side. The bat- 
tle which followed was 
one of the most san- 
guinary of the entire 
war, McClellan losing 
one-sixth of his army 
and Lee one-fourth of 
the men who had 
crossed the Potomac 
with him two weeks 
before. Only night 
put an end to the fear- 
ful carnage, and both 
armies ceased their 
fighting, content to let 
the other rest. While 
the union army had 
been badly shaken, 
Lee's army had been 
so shattered and crip- 

* FIRST INVASION OF THE NORTH 




422 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

pled that it needed but a vigorous attack on the morrow — 
such as Grant waged at Shiloh — to end the struggle. But 
McClellan waited for reinforcements all through that day. 
On the morning of the 19th of September, he prepared to 
renew the battle, but he was too late — Lee under cover of 
the night had escaped with his now sullen and discouraged 
army across the Potomac into Virginia. McClellan made no 
effort to pursue Lee. President Lincoln finally lost all 
patience with McClellan, and removed him from the com- 
mand of the army of the Potomac, placing in his stead the 
amiable Ambrose E. Burnside. 



BUENSIDE A I FREDEEICKSBURG 

532. Battle of Fredericksburg — December 13. — Having gath- 
ered an army of more than 100,000 men, Burnside moved 
down the Rappahannock and took a position on the north 
side of that stream across from Fredericksburg. That city 
refused to surrender and on the following day Lee's army 
arrived and intrenched itself on the heights surrounding 
the city. Burnside, impatient to attack, crossed the stream on 
pontoon bridges on the 11th and 12th of December and on the 
13th gave battle. At the foot of the height, immediately back 
of Fredericksburg, was a sunken road, and, on its lower side, 
an old stone wall, behind which was massed, four ranks deep, 
a confederate force. Up the slope leading to this breastwork 
the union troops swept time after time to within but a few 
yards of the wall, but they were met each time by a sheet 
of flame, piling the dead and wounded in heaps upon the 
field. The same daring and bravery which had character- 
ized the union troops at Antietam were repeated over and over, 
but all to no purpose — Fredericksburg was another field of 
carnage, and this time the victory rested with the army of 
the south. Burnside soon retired as chief of the army of 
the Potomac, General Hooker succeeding to the com- 
mand. 



I 



ABKAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 423 

THE WAR NOW FOR THE UNION AND AGAINST SLAVERY 

533. Lincoln Proclaims Freedom to the Slaves — September 
22, 1862 and January 1, 1863. — The war up to Antietam had 
been a war for the preservation of the union and not for the 
abolition of slavery. Although the antislavery advocates of 
the north had kejot the slavery question constantly before 
the public, President Lincoln refused to be hurried in such 
an important matter, until, in his judgment, the time 
should be ripe to take the step as "a measure of war." 
After the victory at Antietam, he felt that the time had 
come to strike the south a blow, and to allow the moral 
sentiment of the nation to assert itself. Accordingly, 
five days after the victory at Antietam, he issued his first 
Emancipation Proclamation (September 22), which served 
notice on the seceded states that unless they had laid down 
their arms and acknowledged their allegiance to the union by 
New Year's Day of January, 1863, he should formally 
declare all slaves within their borders free. The south, con- 
fident of victory, laughed his proclamation to scorn, but the 
blow, nevertheless, fell full upon that section — the confeder- 
acy was now placed before the civilized world in its true 
light, as the champion of the detested institution of slavery. 
True to his warning, Lincoln issued his final proclamation 
on the first day of January, 1863, and thereby destroyed the 
last hope of the south for foreign intervention. It now 
became a war, not only for the union, but against slavery, 
and along that line the issue was to be fought to a close. 

THE CLOSE or THE YEAR 

534. The Situation at the close of the second year of the 
war was to the advantage of the union cause in the west, 
while in the east the opposing armies still held each other at 
bay — neither having gained the advantage. The Eman- 
cipation Proclamation met with favor at the north and 
commanded the respect of the civilized nations of the 
world. Lincoln followed his September Emancipation 



424 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Proclamation by another call (October 17), for 300,000 
volunteers, which met with a generous response at the 
north. Halleck was still the general-in-chief of the union 
armies. Hooker was now to succeed Burnside as the com- 
mander of the army of the Potomac, and try his skill at war 
with Lee. The union armies of the west were united in two 
departments, with Eosecrans in the center, at the head of 
the army of the Cumberland, and Grant on the Mississippi, 
at the head of the army of the Mississippi and the Tennessee. 



IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1862 



NAME OF 


Place Where 


Date 


Commanding 
General of 


Commanding 
General of Con- 


BATTLE 


Fought 




Union Army 


federate Army 


MiU Springs . . 


Mill Springs, Ky. 


Jan. 19 .... 


Brig. -Gen. G. H. 
Thomas 


Maj.-Gen. G. B. 
Crittenden 


Fort Donelson 


Ft. Donelson, 


Feb. 16 .... 


Brig. -Gen. U. S. 


Brig. -Gens. G.J. 




Tenn. 




Grant 


Pillow, J. B. 
Floyd and S. 
B. Buckner 


Pea Ridge 


Pea Ridge, Ark. 


March 7-8 . . 


Brig. -Gen. S. R. 
Curtis 


Maj.-Gen. E. 
VanDorn 


Merrimac and 


Hampton Roads. 


March 9 .... 


Lieut. J. L. 


Flag-Offlcer F. 


Monitor 


Va. 




Worden 


Buchanan 


Shiloh 


Pittsburg Land- 


April 6-7. . . 


Brig. -Gen. U. S. 


Gen. A. S. John- 




ing, Tenn. 




Grant 


ston 


Island No. 10.. 


Island No. 10, 


April 7 .... 


Maj.-Gen. J. 


Ma j. -Gens. J. P. 




Tenn. 




Pope 


McCown and 
W. W. Mackall 


New Orleans . 


New Orleans, La. 


April 25 ... . 


Flag-Offlcer D. 

G. Farragut 
Maj.-Gen. B. F. 

Butler 


Com.J.K. Mitch- 
ell 

Maj.-Gen. M. 
Lovell 


Fair Oaks .... 


Fair Oaks, Va. 


May 31 -June 


Maj.-Gen. Mc- 


Gen. J. E. John- 






1 


Clellan 


ston 


Seven Days' 


Mechanics ville 


June 26- July 


Maj.-Gen. Mc- 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


Battles 


Savage's Station 


1 


Clellan 




(Va.) 


WhiteOak Swamp 
Fraizer's Farm 
Malvern Hill 








Baton Rouge . 


Baton Rouge, La. 


Aug. 5 .... 


Brig. -Gen. T. 
Williams 


Maj.-Gen. J. C. 
Breckinridge 


Bull Run (Sec- 
ond) 
Antietam 


Bull Run, Va. 


Aug. 29-30 


Maj.-Gen. J. 

Pope 
Maj.-Gen. Mc- 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


Antietam Creek, 


Sept. 17 .... 


Gen. R. E. Lee 




Md. 




Clellan 




luka 


luka. Miss. 


Sept. 19 .... 


Ma j. Gen. W. S. 
Rosecraus 


Maj.-Gen. S. 




Price 


Corinth 


Corinth, Miss. 


Oct. 4 .... 


Ma j -Gen. W. S. 
Ko.secrans 


Maj.-Gen. E. 
VanDorn 


Perry ville .... 


Perryville, Ky. 


Oct. 8 .... 


Maj.-Gen. D. C. 

Buell 
Maj.-Gen. A. E. 


Gen. B. Bragg 


Fredericks- 


Fredericksburg, 


Dec. 13 .... 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


burg 


Va. 




Buruside 




First Vicks- 


ChickasawBayou. 


Dee. 28 .... 


Maj.-Gen. W. T. 


Lieut.-Gen. J. C. 


burg 


Miss. 




Sherman 


Pemberton 


Murfreesboro . 


Stone's River, 


Dee. 31 -Jan. 


Maj.-Gen. W. S. 


Gen. B. Bragg 




Tenn. 


2. 1863 


Rosecrans 





ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 4:'Z6 

THE YEAR 1863 
535. Plan of Operations. — The plan of operations in 1863 
was to prosecute the war along the same lines which the 
army and navy had been fighting in the previous year: 
(1) The blockade, already effective, was to be made more so 
by constructing and putting into service many iron- 
clads; (2) the army of the west under Grant was to com- 
plete the opening of the Mississippi River, thereby 
completely severing the confederacy; (3) the army of the 
center under Rosecrans was to take Chattanooga, and from 
there push through to some point on the Gulf or Atlantic 
coast; (4) the army of the Potomac, now under Hooker, 
was to destroy Lee's army and capture Richmond. 

IX THE WEST 
GRANT AND VICKSBURG 

636. Campaign against Vicksburg. — The confederates still 
held the Mississippi River from Vicksburg to Port Hudson, 
and this must now be wrested from them, for Vicksburg was 
the key to the Mississippi River. In tlie autumn of 1862, 
Grant directed Sherman to descend t'he river from Memphis 
with a fleet under Porter, and capture the city, while he 
himself moved south into Mississippi, intending to keep 
Pemberton, commander of the confederate forces in that 
state, engaged as far from Vicksburg as possible. A con- 
federate force under General Van Dorn, however, captured 
Holly Springs, Grant's depot of supplies, thereby cutting off 
the union line of communication with the north, and defeat- 
ing Grant's plan. Sherman, not informed of this misfor- 
tune, moved down the Mississippi, landed on the Yazoo 
River, and made an unsuccessful attack upon the fortifica- 
tions some miles above Vicksburg. This first effort failing. 
Grant resolved on a second plan, and in January, 1863, 
massed the union troops on the west bank of the Mississippi, 
opposite Vicksburg. Deciding that the only successful plan 
would be to attack the city from the south. Grant deter- 



426 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



mined to run the batteries at Vicksburg, and on the night 
of April 16 a fleet under Porter performed this dangerous 
and daring feat, with the loss of but one of Porter's boats. 
The army marched south on the west bank of the river, 
crossed it, and on the 29th of April, landed at a point about 
twenty miles south of Vicksburg. Port Gibson was cap- 
tured (May 1), and an engagement won at Raymond (May 12). 

Grant then advanced on Jackson, 
the state capital of Mississippi, 
where all railroads communicating 
with A'icksburg connected. Gen- 
eral Joseph E. Johnston gave battle 
at that point, but after a severe en- 
gagement, the confederates fled, and 
the union troops entered the city. 
Grant now turned westward toward 
Vicksburg, thus separating the 
forces of Johnston and Pemberton. 
Grant defeated Pemberton in a 
hard fought battle at Champion 
Hill (May 16), and on the following 
day completely routed him at Big 
Black River. Pemberton now re- 
tired to the intrenchments at Vicks- 
burg, caught like a mouse in a trap. 
Grant stationed his batteries ready 
for action, and sent word to Porter 
to open fire on the river front. As 
the first shot rang out from the fleet, Grant ordered an 
assault, but the gallant charge was repulsed with great 
loss. Hereupon Grant gave up all thought of storming 
the strong fortifications, and settled down to a siege which 
lasted for forty-three days. By the 3d of July Pemberton 
was starved out, and raised the white flag above his works. 
On the following day Vicksburg fell, Pemberton surrender- 
ing 31,600 men as prisoners of war. 




VICKSBUKQ CAMPAIGN 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 427 

637. Effect of the Fall of Vicksburg.— x\ feAV days later, 
Port Hudson surrendered and the work of Grant in the 
Mississippi valley was accomplished — the great river was now 
open from its source to its mouth, and the confederacy cut 
in twain. One of the chief plans of the war had thus been 
accomplished. The success of the union armies in the west 
Avas due to the skill and persistent efforts of one great man, 
General Ulysses S. Grant, who was now given the rank of 
major-general in the union army. The fall of Vicksburg 
ended his service in the Mississippi valley. 

IN thp: center 

WITH ROSECRAXS, THOMAS, AND GEANT 

538. Rosecrans Enters Chattanooga. — All during the win- 
ter and spring following Murfreesboro, Rosecrans 's army lay 
encamped on the field so bravely won, while Bragg's south- 
ern army still camped in Tennessee. Finally, June 24, 
Rosecrans began the forward movement, Avhich later led to 
that brilliant campaign in the center in which were engaged 
the four great generals — Grant, the hero of the victories in 
Mississippi; Sherman, who had so ably assisted in these 
victories ; Sheridan, the brilliant cavalry officer ; and Thomas, 
whose unflinching courage and endurance soon made him 
one of the chief commanders in the army of the center. 

By September, Rosecrans "had skillfully manoeuvered 
Bragg south of the Tennessee River, and through and 
beyond Chattanooga, ' ' and had himself taken possession of 
that city. 

539. Battle of Chickamauga — September 19-20. — When 
Bragg passed through the gaps of Missionary Ridge in his 
flight from Chattanooga, Rosecrans pushed on to overtake 
him ; but, learning that the confederate army was concen- 
trating in northwestern Georgia, Rosecrans gave up the 
chase. Bragg was reinforced and now took the initiative. 
On September 18, the two armies faced each other in 
order of battle along the banks of Chickamauga Creek, a 



428 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



few miles southeast of Chattanooga. Here on September iw' 
and 20 one of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought. 
All day long the union army resisted the fierce attacks of 
the southern columns — charges and counter- charges were 




CHICKAMAUGA AND T.OOKO UT MOUNTAIN 



made — and at nightfall of the 19th, the confederates had 
failed to gain the road to Chattanooga, but they held many 
of their positions and were ready to renew the battle the 
next day. The battle opened on the 20th with an attack 
upon the union left. Five union brigades were swept from 
the field and others were caught in the mad' rush toward 
Chattanooga, On swept the confederate troops, until they 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 429 

faced the new union line on the wooded crest of Snodgrass 
Hill. Here from three o'clock in the afternoon until night 
put an end to the struggle, the indomitable Thomas held 
his ground, attacked on flank and front. Up the slope of the 
hill charged the confederates, giving the southern yell — only 
to be mowed down with frightful slaughter. Again and again 
they charged, but Thomas, christened on that day as "The 
Rock of Chickamauga," stood his ground and at night with- 
drew toward Chattanooga. Seldom has history recorded a 
more gallant defence than that made by Thomas and his 
brave troops at Chickamauga. 

640. After the Battle of Chickamauga. — Bragg, at once 
proceeded to shut up the union army in Chattanooga. This 
city lies on the south bank of the Tennessee River at the 
northern end of a narrow valley, through which runs Chatta- 
nooga Creek. The valley is bounded on the east by Mission- 
ary Ridge and on the west by Lookout Mountain, rising 
abruptly from the river, which flows south from the city and 
at the foot of this mountain makes a sharp turn to the 
north again. Bragg's troops were stationed along the crest 
and slope of Missionary Ridge for some miles to the south, 
thence west across Chattanooga valley to Lookout Mountain, 
which they held and fortified. Confederate pickets along 
the river guarded the road over which supplies could most 
easily be brought to the city. All railroad communication 
had been cut off and the union men were on half rations. 

541. Grant Assumes Command. — But all was soon to 
change. General Rosecrans was removed and General 
Thomas put in his place. General Grant was summoned 
to Chattanooga to take command of the department of the 
Mississippi. Sherman and many of the troops from Vicksburg 
were hastening to the relief, and General Hooker had been 
sent with troops from the army of the Potomac. Grant's 
first care upon his arrival was to bridge the Tennessee River 
and bring in an abundant supply of food and ammunition. 
Burnside was hastening southward through eastern Tennes- 



430 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

see and Bragg made his fatal mistake of sending 20,000 
troops under his able corps commander, Longstreet, to 
Knoxville to capture Biirnside. Reinforcements having 
arrived, Grant decided to attack. With the booming of can^ 
non on the afternoon of October 23, Thomas's troops made 
a dashing charge on the confederate fortifications in the val- 
ley, and the union line was advanced about a mile. 

542. Battle of Lookout Mountain — November 24. — In the 
early morning of the 24th, General Hooker advanced to 
drive the confederates from their position on Lookout Moun- 
tain. The pickets were taken and the gallant Hooker, — 
while a heavy mist enveloped the mountain, — led his troops 
up the steep and wooded western slopes. Only the inces- 
sant rattle of musketry told Grant, at his position on Orchard 
Knob, that the battle — this famous *' Battle above the 
Clouds" — was raging. The confederates evacuated during 
the night, and the morning's sun greeted the flag of the 
union on the crest of Lookout Mountain. Sherman, under 
cover of the mist, had gained the north base of Missionary 
Ridge, and the confederate attack was not able to dislodge 
him. 

543. Battle of Missionary Ridge — November 25. — On the 
morning of the 25tli, Bragg's forces were massed on Mission- 
ary Ridge, with a strongly intrenched line on the crest, 
another midway up the slope, and a third at the base. Gen- 
eral Grant had planned for Hooker to attack the confederate 
left while Sherman pressed on from his position on the right. 
But the southern army, retreating across the valley from 
Lookout Mountain, had burned the bridges across the creek 
and it was late in the afternoon before Hooker could reach 
the Ridge. Sherman attacked early in the morning and by 
three o'clock was so hard pressed that Grant gave the signal 
for an attack by Thomas's brave troops. Advancing at 
double quick, Thomas's men carried the rifle pits and union 
and confederate troops went over the first line of defences 
almost at the same time. There was no halting, no waiting 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN^ AXD THE CIVIL WAR 431 

for further orders, no re-forming of lines, but up the steep 
slope, covered with fallen timber and boulders, Thomas's 
troops advanced, — the second line of works was carried, — 
and on they swept to the crest. The crest was gained 
and the cannon turned upon the retreating, panic-stricken 
confederate troops, thousands of whom threw away their 
arms in their mad flight, and many were taken prisoners. By 
night Bragg's demoralized army was in full retreat and Grant 
had opened another gateway to the south. 

544. Burnside at Knoxville. — Meanwhile Burnside had 
taken possession of Knoxville, and Longstreet had made an 
unsuccessful attack upon the town. When the news reached 
him of Bragg's disaster, Longstreet immediately abandoned 
the siege and on the night of December 4 hastened north- 
ward to rejoin Lee. Eastern Tennessee was saved, and the 
president's anxiety for the loyal people of this state was 
removed. 

IN THE EAST 
THE lEONCLADS FAIL A T CHAKLESTON 

545. Battle of Charleston Harbor — April 7. — After the vic- 
tory of the Monitor at Hampton Roads, it was believed in 
the north that a fleet of monitors would be able to accomplish 
the reduction of all the confederate fortifications along the 
entire Atlantic and Gulf coast. Such a fleet was accordingly 
constructed, and, on April 7, 1863, Admiral Dupont steamed 
into Charleston harbor, South Carolina, for the purpose of 
capturing Charleston— one of the most important coast points 
in possession of the confederacy. The action opened at three 
o'clock in the afternoon, and the fleet was soon under the 
fire of seventy-six of the best guns in possession of the con- 
federacy — all of them well mounted and skillfully handled. 
When the fleet withdrew, every vessel had been fearfully' 
battered, and some of the boats completely disabled. The 
news of the defeat of these ironclads could hardly be believed 
at the north, and the greatest disappointment followed, 



432 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

while a new impetus was given to blockade running in the 
south. 

HOOKER AND CHANCELLORSVILLE 

546. Battle of Chancellorsville— May 2 and 3.— After Fred- 
ericksburg, the army of the Potomac remained inactive 
across the Rappahannock from the point where Buruside had 
met such a bloody repulse. General Hooker had succeeded 
Burnside in January and by the last of April was ready to 
take the field. With more than 100,000 men at his com- 
mand he felt sure of his ability to crush the confederate 
army. He accordingly moved up the Rappahannock, 
crossed that stream, with about 60,000 troops, and by 
the first of May had his army in position at Chancellors- 
ville, ten miles from Fredericksburg. Jackson at once, 
following his favorite movement, marched around Hooker's 
army and attacked it in the rear so unexpectedly that 
an entire division was rolled back upon the main body of 
the army, which the impetuous charges of Jackson now 
threatened with disaster. Hooker had been completely 
surprised; only night saved the union army from utter 
rout. Lee, on the following day, fought the union army in 
detail, defeating it, a division at a time, though he met with 
stubborn resistance. At night Hooker gave up the useless 
and bloody struggle, and on the following day withdrew 
under cover of a storm, to his old position across the Rap- 
pahannock, to suffer censure and blame for his mismanage- 
ment. 

647. Effect of Chancellorsville. — Again the north was filled 
with gloom. Two years and more of war had passed, marked 
by a long list of disasters in the east. The soldiers in 
the army of the Potomac were just as brave and fought 
as valiantly as did Lee's and Jackson's men; indeed, 
no braver soldiers ever lived. *'Why was it," the public 
press now asked, the people asked, and Lincoln asked, 
"that a leader could not be found to lead this splendid 
northern army successfully against the southern foe?" 



ABRAHAM LIKCOLN AI^D THE CIVIL WAR 433 

Bitter were the complaints in congress and in the coun- 
try. Yet, amidst all this disappointment and this night 
of gloom, a lofty patriotism sustained the north, which still 
hoped on, — confident that right would win, that the union 
would survive, and, now that the great Lincoln had spoken 
out on New Year's Day for human freedom, that slavery and 
disunion would perish together. The tide of war was soon 
to turn, though anxious days were still in store, indeed, had 
come, — for Lee, emboldened by Fredericksburg and Ohancel- 
lorsville, once more flew northward, spurred on by the cry, 
now ringing forth from southern camps, of 'Onto Wash- 
ington." 

ON TO WASHINGTON 

548. Lee's Second Invasion of the North. — Lee broke camp 
in the early part of June and started on his second invasion 
of the north. His plan was to pass northward, east of the 
range of the Blue Ridge, cross into Maryland, and carry 
his troops forward to the fertile valleys in Pennsylvania, 
where he expected to find rich plunder and much-needed 
supplies — it being the harvest time. He hoped to draw after 
him Hooker's entire army, defeat it on the free soil of the 
north, then march on Baltimore — perhaps the national cap- 
ital itself. No sooner had Lee crossed the mountains, than 
Hooker gave chase. Lee, crossing the Potomac at Williams- 
port and Shepherdstown, passed through Maryland, and was 
soon encamped at Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. He sent 
detachments out to capture Carlisle, and extort $100,000 
tribute from the city of York. His cavalry in the mean- 
time — 10,000 strong — charged across the country, laying 
it waste in every direction. 

649. Meade Succeeds Hooker in Command. — Hooker had all 
the while been conducting a most admirable advance. But 
after his defeat at Chancellorsville, he had become so embit- 
tered against General-in-Chief Halleck that he complained 
to Lincoln of that general's unkind treatment. Irritated by 



434 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Halleck, he resigned his command in the face of the enemy, 
and retired from the army of the Potomac forever. Gen- 
eral George G. Meade was promptly appointed in his stead. 
He at once assumed command and pushed rapidly forward in 
quest of Lee. 



GETTYSBURG 



550. The First Day's Battle of Gettysburg— July 1.— The 

advance forces of the two armies met unexpectedly on the 
morning of July 1, in the vicinity of the little village of 
Gettysburg, and a hard fought battle ensued. In this bat- 




QKTTYSBURU AND VICTNITV 



ABRAHAM LINCOLJ^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 435 

tie General Keynolds lost his life, and the union troops were 
forced to withdraw south of the city to Cemetery Ridge, — a 
hook-shaped hill about three miles in length. At its south- 
ern extremity is Round Top, a mound about four hundred 
feet high commanding the valley to the west. A little to the 
north of this, on the crest of the hill, is Little Round Top, — 
also commanding the valley to the west. From this point 
the ridge runs northward toward the town, then turns to 
the east, completing the hook and terminating abruptly in 
Gulp's Hill, which commands the valley to the north and 
east. It was to this ridge that Reynold's troops had retired 
after the death of that officer. General Hancock soon 
arrived upon the field, and recognized the importance of 
holding Cemetery Ridge as a vantage position to the union 
army. During all that night, Meade's hosts were pushed 
rapidly forward to this position, and when day broke on July 
2, the morning sun shone upon the union army intrenched 
on Cemetery Ridge, 80,000 strong, eager and ready for bat- 
tle. Across the valley to the west, was Seminary Ridge, 
upon which Lee had gathered his forces during the night — 
also about 80,000 strong and as eager for the contest as was 
the army of the Potomac. 

661. The Second Day's Battle— July 2.— Little Round Top 
was the key to the union position, and this Lee resolved to 
take by assault. At four o'clock in the afternoon of July 
2, a confederate force advanced up the hill under the 
enthusiasm of the southern yell, ana furiously fell upon Gen- 
eral Sickles's men, and a two hours' bloody battle ensued. 
While this battle was on, a confederate force swept up the 
hill to Little Round Top. A hand-to-hand encounter fol- 
lowed, in which prodigies of valor were displayed on both 
sides, the confederate force finally yielding and retreating 
down the slope, leaving their dead and wounded scattered 
upon the field. At ten o'clock at night, the second day's 
battle ceased, and the soldiers slept upon their arms. 

662. The Third Day s Battle— July 3.— The struggle was 



436 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

reopened at noon on July 3 by an artillery battle. At 
the end of two hours, the confederate batteries suddenly 
ceased firing. A moment of ominous stillness fell upon 
both armies. When the smoke lifted, a large confed- 
erate force under Pickett, one of Lee's ablest generals, 
was seen advancing across the valley in battle array. Lee 
had planned to carry the union position at the point of the 
bayonet! On came Pickett's men, charging up the slope of 
Cemetery Eidge, exciting the admiration of the union army 
all along the battle line. The union artillery hailed shot 
and shell upon this advancing host. Men were literally 
mowed down in windrows, but their places quickly filled. 
Up, up came Pickett's men to the very muzzles of the union 
guns ! There they were hurled back and rushed madly, wildly, 
down the slope, their lines broken and shattered, and now in 
utter rout. The invincible army of the south had been 
broken like a reed. Meade had won the day at Gettys- 
burg! 

563. Situation at the Close of the Year 1863. — Gettysburg 
was the turning point of the war. At the very moment 
Pickett's men were meeting their bloody repulse on the slope 
of Cemetery Eidge, Pemberton was flying the white flag 
above his fortifications at Vicksburg. On July 5 Lee 
gathered together his now shattered and crippled army, 
and retreated dov/n the passes of the Blue Eidge through 
the Shenandoah valley, to his old camping ground in 
Virginia, across the Eappahannock. Meade gave chase, 
but slowly. In a few weeks he, too, arrived on the 
soil of Virginia, and encamped across the river from Lee's 
position. Here the two armies remained, watching one 
another, cautiously seeking an opportunity to strike. Efforts 
failing, both armies went into winter quarters, and practic- 
ally remained inactive until the following spring. Thus, at 
the close of the year, Lee's invasion had been repelled, the 
Mississippi was opened and patrolled by union gunboats, the 
blockade of the southern ports was more effective than ever, 



ABRAHAM LINCOLI!^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 



437 



and the strong position of Chattanooga was securely held by 
the nnion army. 

IMPORTANT BATTLES OP 1863 



Name op 
Battle 



Chancellors- 

ville 
Gettysburg .. . . 

Vicksburg 

Port Hudson . 

Chickamauga . 

Chattanooga . 

Knoxville 



Place Where 
Fought 



Chancellorsville, 

Va. 
Gettysburg, Pa. 

Vicksburg, Miss. 

Port Hudson, La. 

Chickamauga, Ga. 

Chattanooga, 

Tenn. 
Knoxville, Tenn. 



Date 



May 2-3 ... . 
July 1-3. .. 

July 4' 

Julys 

Sept. 19-20. 
Nov. 23-25 . 
Dec. 4 



Commanding 

General of 
Union Army 



Ma j. -Gen. J. 

Hooker 
Maj.-Gen. G. G. 

Meade 
Maj.-Gen. U. S. 

Grant 
Maj.-Gen. N. P. 

Banks 
Maj.-Gen. W. S. 

Rosecrans 
Maj.-Gen. U. S. 

Grant 
Maj.-Gen. A. E. 

Burnside 



Commanding 
General of Con- 
federate Army 



Gen. R. E. Lee 
Gen. R. E. Lee 

Lieut. -Gen. J. C. 

Pemberton 
Maj.-Gen. F. 

Gardner 
Gen. B. Bragg 

Gen. B. Bragg 

Lieut.-Gen. J. 
Longstreet 



THE YEAR 1864 

554. Plan of Operations for 1864.— One day in the spring 
of 1864, two men met in conference in the parlor of a prom- 
inent hotel in Cincinnati. Spread out on a table before 
them lay some especially prepared military maps, which both 
were eagerly scanning. Before the meeting ended, the two 
parties to this conference had decided upon the plan of 
operations for the union armies in 1864. These two men 
were union generals,— one of them, General Ulysses S. Grant, 
the other. General William T. Sherman. Grant, with the 
army of the Potomac, was to capture Lee's army; while Sher- 
man was to carry the ravages of war into the heart of the 
confederacy, capture Johnston's army, touch at some point 
upon the Atlantic coast, and then march northward to inter- 
cept Lee, should he attempt to escape from Grant at Eich- 
mond. 

IN THE CENTER 
WITH SHERMAN TO THE SEA 

555. Sherman's Campaign against Atlanta— May 5 to Sep- 
tember 2. — When Sherman parted with his superior in 
Cincinnati, he hastened south, determined to move as soon as 



438 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



possible to the accomplishment of his part of this gigantic 
campaign. General Joseph E. Johnston was in command of 
the southern army in Georgia. On the 5th of May, the 
same day that Grant moved to begin his part of the cam- 
paign, Sherman started south with his force of 100,000 men, 
to attack Johnston, who was fortified at Dalton, in northern 

Georgia. Now be- 
gan a series of bril- 
liant engagements, 
in which Sherman by 
h i s favorite flank 
movement caused 
Johnston to fall back 
from one position to 
another, until, by the 
latter part of July, 
the confederates had 
been driven within 
the intrenchments at 
Atlanta. At Dalton, 
Resaca, Altoona, Dal- 
las, Kenesaw and 
Lost mountains, and 
many other places, 
the union forces had 
been successful, but 
they had met with 
stubborn resistance, and now at Atlanta a siege was to be 
kept up for more than a month. Tired of Johnston's policy 
of retreating, Jefferson Davis removed him from command, 
and put General John B. Hood in charge of the confederate 
forces at that point. 

556. Sherman Enters Atlanta — September 2. — This change 
in command in the confederate army meant a change of 
policy. General Hood soon made a furious charge (July 20) 
upon the union army, but after an hour's engagement was 




CHATTANOOGA TO ATLANTA 



ABRAHAM LIJ^COLISr AN^D THE CIVIL WAR 



439 



severely repulsed, and forced to fall back within his lines. 
Two days later, he attacked a second time, but was again 
driven back into the city, after suffering the loss of about 
10,000 of his men. Sherman now prepared to cut off' Hood's 
communications, by marching around Atlanta, capturing its 
railroads on the east and south, and then taking the city 
from the rear. But, on September 2, Hood evacuated the 
city and fled, and the federal army at once took possession. 
557. Hood Turns Northward — Battle of Nashville - 
December 15 and 16. — On evacuating Atlanta, Hood first 
marched to the southwest, then boldly turned northward, 
threatening Sherman's line of communication. After de- 
stroying about twenty miles of the 
Chattanooga and Atlanta railroad, 
— the only route over which sup- 
plies could reach Sherman, — Hood 
passed into northern Alabama, with 
the evident intention of invading 
Tennessee and thus drawing Sher- 
man after him. Sherman at once 
dispatched General Thomas to Nash- 
ville with a large body of troops to 
intercept Hood. Thomas arrived 
none too soon, for about the middle 

of November Hood crossed the Tennessee River and eagerly 
began his northward march. At Columbia, a skirmish took 
place between Hood's army and a detachment of Thomas's 
force. On the last day of November, a desperate and san- 
guinary battle ensued at Franklin, where Hood's army was 
badly shattered. Urged on as if by some relentless fate, 
Hood reached Nashville and formed his line of battle in front 
of the intrenchments of the ever cautious but invincible 
Thomas. As time went by and Thomas did not attack Hood, 
the whole country became alarmed. But Thomas had the 
courage to wait until he felt prepared to attack; and the 
result of the battle fought on December 15 and 16 was 




440 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

his justification for his delay. When Thomas burst upon 
Hood's soldiers, they fled in utter rout, leaving on the field 
their dead and wounded, their artillery and their arms. So 
complete was the destruction of Hood's army that never again 
was it successfully reorganized. 

558. From Atlanta to the Sea — November 15 to December 
22. — When Hood turned northward, Sherman planned to 
march forth into the very heart of the confederacy, live 
upon the country, reach and take some seacoast city, then 
turn northward and join Grant in the vicinity of Richmond. 
After resting his troops, Sherman was ready to advance. He 
destroyed the railroad connecting Atlanta with Chattanooga, 
applied the torch to all public buildings in Atlanta, cut the 
telegraph wires, and with his magnificent army of 60,000 
as well trained and as intelligent men "as ever trod 
the earth," swung off (November 15) on his famous march 
from Atlanta to the sea. The army marched in four 
parallel columns, but a few miles apart, advancing about 
fifteen miles a day. Each brigade detailed a certain 
number of men to gather supplies of forage and pro- 
visions. Starting off on foot in the morning these 
foragers would return in the evening mounted on ponies 
or mules, or driving a family carriage loaded out- 
side and in, with everything the country afforded. 
Railroads were torn up, and the rails heated and twisted ; 
bridges were burned ; and the fertile country for thirty miles 
on either side of the line of march was laid waste. Georgia's 
soldiers were in the north, so this army met with little 
resistance. When next the north heard from Sherman, he 
was in front of Savannah. Savannah was evacuated and 
Sherman entered on December 22. The confederacy had 
again been cut in twain. Georgia, with her arsenals, and 
factories, had been the workshop of the south. Sherman 
had followed the confederates to their "inmost recesses," 
and had shown to the world how feeble was their power, 
how rapidly their doom was approaching. 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 441 

WITH FABRAGUT AT MOBILE BAY 

659. Farragut Enters Mobile Bay —August 5. — Mobile was 
the stronghold of the confederacy on the gulf. Two strong 
forts on low-lying sandpoints guarded the entrance to the 
bay, thirty miles below the city. Within the harbor lay a 
confederate fleet, and among its vessels the monster ironclad 
ram, Tennessee. Farragut, the hero of New Orleans, de- 
termined to force an entrance to this bay. About six o'clock 
on the morning of August 5, he advanced to the attack. 
Soon one of his leading vessels was sunk by the explosion of 
a torpedo, but Farragut, lashed to the rigging of his flagship 
Hartford, boldly took the lead and passed through the 
torpedo line followed by his fleet. The forts were soon safely 
passed. In the engagement with the confederate fleet, two 
of their vessels were captured, and the powerful ironclad 
Tennessee was so badly disabled that, after an engagement of 
an hour and a quarter, she ran up the white flag. A few 
days after, the forts at the entrance to the harbor sur- 
rendered, but the city itself remained in the possession of 
the confederates until the following year. 

THE ALABAMA 

560. England and the Confederate Cruisers. — During the 
war the English authorities connived at the building of con- 
federate cruisers in English dockyards. Notwithstanding 
the protest of the American government, these privateers 
were permitted to leave English ports to prey upon the com- 
merce of the United States. There were six or eight of 
these cruisers, which constantly harrassed American com- 
merce. The Shenandoah is said to have destroyed or cap- 
tured more than $6,000,000 worth of American property on 
the high seas. It was the custom of these cruisers to avoid 
encounter with American men-of-war, bnt to assail, wher- 
ever and whenever they could, American merchantmen. 
Millions of dollars worth of property was thus taken or 
destroyed by these English built cruisers, and Anierican 



442 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

commerce practically driven from the seas. The attitude of 
the English authorities in thus extending sympathy and aid 
to the southern rebellion created the most hostile feeling 
in the United States against England. 

661. The Kearsarge and the Alabama. — The most famous 
of all these cruisers was the Alabama, under Captain Raphael 
Semmes, who before the rebellion was an officer in the United 
States navy. Semmes was the most daring of all the con- 
federate sea-rovers. He at first commanded the Sumter, 
and later became commander of the Alabama. When 
that cruiser was building at Liverpool, Charles Francis 
Adams, minister to England, had protested against its leav- 
ing British waters, but in spite of this protest, the Alabama 
was permitted to slip away to the Azore Islands, where 
Semmes and a confederate crew were in waiting to receive 
her. She destroyed American commerce right and left, 
taking millions of dollars worth of American prizes. On 
the 19th of June, 1864, the Alabama was encountered by 
the United States steamer Kearsarge, under command of 
Captain John A. Winslow, off the coast of Cherbourg, 
France. After an hour's engagement the Alabama was so 
disabled that she ran up the white flag and soon afterward 
sank. 

IN THE EAST 
FROM THE RAPIDANITO THE JAMES 

562. Grant's Plan. — Grant was now in command of all the 
union forces under arms on the continent. He took up 
his headquarters with the army of the Potomac, and a little 
after midnight of the 4th of May, 1864, set that army of 
120,000 men in motion across the Eapidan. He then sent 
a telegram to Sherman to start from Chattanooga, and 
carry out his part of the plan agreed upon at the Cincinnati 
conference and another telegram to Butler at Fortress Mon- 
roe to move up the James Eiver to City Point below Rich- 
mond, and hold that as a base of supplies in anticipation of 
(Grant's reaching the James with the army of the Potomac. 



ABRAHAM LINCOLX AND THE CIVIL WAR 443 

Grant's plan was to begin a forward movement of all these 
armies, with a view to pounding the confederate armies until 
they surrendered or the confederacy went to pieces. After 
the first battle across the Rapidan, Lee remarked, "The 
army of the Potomac at last has a general who will not 
retreat. ' ' 

563. Battle of the Wilderness — May 5 and 6. — Grant had no 
sooner crossed the Rapidan and moved down toward the region 
where Hooker had met with such a sev^ere repulse at Chancel- 
lorsville, than Lee fell furiously upon the army of the 
Potomac, determined to drive it back across the river. Li 
the two days' bloody battle which followed (May 5 and 6), 
Grant himself says no greater fighting was ever witnessed on 
the continent. The battle took place in what is known as 
"The Wilderness" — a wild lonely region, where the country 
for miles around is covered with a dense growth of cedar and 
scrub oak so closely compacted as to prevent the free and 
easy movement of troops. At the end of the two days' 
struggle, Lee retired to his intrenchments, and Grant, 
content to leave him there, began his famous series of 
movements "by the left flank" with a view to forcing his 
army in between Lee and his communication at Richmond. 
Lee, detecting his movement, hastily forsook his intrench- 
ments, and being perfectly familiar with the geography of 
The AVilderness, soon planted himself squarely in front of 
Grant's line at Spottsylvania Courthouse. 

564. The Battle of Spottsylvania Courthouse — May 9-12. — 
Here for three days a furious battle raged in a country as 
wild as that in which the army had fought so desperately on 
the 5th and 6th of May. The battle ended at nightfall on 
the 12th of May, Lee falling back to a new position on the 
following morning. For eight days — from May 5 to 12 — 
the two armies had been constantly under fire, and all the 
while Grant steadily pressing nearer Richmond. "The men 

' toiled all day at the work of slaughter, lay down to sleep at 
night, and rose to resume the bloody labor in the morning, 



444 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



as men do in the ordinary peaceful business of life." The 
dead and wounded on both sides numbered into the 
thousands, and the ambulance train carrying the dying and 
wounded loyal soldiers of the north, made one long contin- 
uous line from Spottsylvania to Washington. 

565. North Anna— May 23-25: Cold Harbor— June 3.— At 
Spottsylvania, Grant rested a week on account of the rains. 
On the 19th of May, he moved toward the North Anna 

River, and in crossing 
it divided his army into 
two divisions. Lee at 
once saw his advantage 
and forced the confed- 
erate army between the 
now divided union forces. 
Several encounters (May 
23-25) between the con- 
tending forces convinced 
Grant that it would be 
the part of wisdom to 
withdraw north of the 
stream. This he at once 
did, but he was no sooner 
across than he marched 
southeasterly along the 
course of the North Anna to its junction with the Pamun- 
key River. He successfully crossed the latter stream in the 
vicinity of Hanover, and at once pushed forward in a south- 
easterly direction to Cold Harbor, ten miles from Rich- 
mond. Here he again found Lee strongly intrenched. 
On the morning of June 3, Grant gave battle, but he met 
with a bloody repulse, his loss in killed and wounded 
amounting to more than 5,000 men. 

566. Change of Base from the York to the James River. — 
Grant now gave up all hope of immediately taking Rich- 
mond, and resolved to chano^e his base from White House on 




Petersburg 



Tlie Tirilderness District 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THK CIVIL WAR 445 

the Pamunkey Eiver to City Point on the James — a similar 
movement to the one accomplished by McOlellan in 1862. 
While this movement was in progress under the direction of 
a part of his army and the navy, Grant lay in front of the 
intrenchments at Cold Harbor, and for ten days put 
forth every effort to induce Lee to come out and fight him 
in the open. Failing in this, he resumed his southward 
march, reaching the James River on the 14th of June. 

567. The Race for Petersburg. — Now began a race between 
the two armies for the possession of Petersburg, — a point 
twenty miles south of Eichmond, and an important railroad 
center connecting with the confederate capital. Before 
the union soldiers attacked, Petersburg was strongly rein- 
forced by Lee, who now took personal command of the 
defence of that city. An attempt was made by Meade on 
the 18th of June to carry the confederate works by assault, 
but Meade was repulsed with great loss of life. Grant, 
anxious to save the lives of his men, finally resolved on 
taking Petersburg by siege, thereby repeating the scenes 
so familiar to him at the siege of Vicksburg. 

IN THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY WIIH SHERIDAN 

668. Early's Raids. — In the latter part of June, Lee, 
hoping to draw off some of Grant's troops from the vicinity 
of Richmond, sent General Jubal A. Early northward to 
threaten Washington. On the 11th of July, Early arrived 
before that city, but delayed his attack until the following 
day. That night reinforcements came from Grant and the 
city was saved. Early retired, but in the latter part of 
July he again flew north — this time into the Shenandoah 
valley. He drove the union forces from that valley and 
swept across the Potomac into Maryland, — a portion of his 
force advancing as far north as Chambersburg, Pennsyl- 
vania. The Shenandoah valley was a rich field for foraging, 
and since 1862 had been the scene of constant raids on the 
part of the confederates. Grant, weary of annovajice from 



440 HISTORY OF THE UN^ITED STATES 

that quarter, sent Sheridan with an army in quest of Early. 
Sheridan soon appeared upon the scene and during the 
month of September, destroyed or captured one half of 
Early's army. Sheridan, acting under orders from Grant, now 
proceeded to lay waste this splendid agricultural valley from 
its source northward to the Potomac River, in order that it 
could be no more used by confederate raiders as a base of 
operations against Washington. So effectually was Sheri- 
dan's work done that it was said at the time that even a 
crow could not subsist in the Shenandoah valley without 
carrying his rations with him. Unaware of this complete 
devastation, Early once more made a raid northward into 
the valley for the purpose of securing needed forage for Lee's 
army at Richmond. 

669. The Battle of Winchester — October 19. — On his arrival 
in the valley, Early learned that the union army was en- 
camped at Cedar Creek in the northern end of the valley. 
On the night of the 18th of October, he succeeded in creep- 
ing around this army, and, at early dawn of the morning of 
the 19th, fell upon Sheridan's troops, taking them com- 
pletely by surprise. General Wright, the commanding oflfir 
cer on the ground, unable to stop the panic which ensued, 
ordered a retreat to Winchester — twenty miles away. Sher- 
idan, at the time the battle began, was at Winchester. 
Having learned of Early's return to the valley, he fully sus- 
pected what was the cause of the cannonading in the direc- 
tion of Cedar Creek. Hastily calling for his horse, he 
mounted and was off at full speed on that famous ride told 
so thrillingly in verse by Thomas Buchanan Read in his 
poem, "Sheridan's Ride." A little before the hour of noon 
Sheridan arrived upon the scene, his steed white with foam. 
As he faced his straggling troops he rose in his stirrups 
mth the greeting — "Turn, boys, turn; we're going back!" 
His presence acted like magic upon his troops — the lines 
were instantly re-formed, and awaited Early's attack. Un- 
der the personal leadership of Sheridan, his troops were 



AiaiAlIAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAil 



447 



invincible. Early was repulsed with such spirit that nearly 
the whole of his army was destroyed. Never again did the 
confederates attempt to renew the war in the Shenandoah 
valley. 

THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR 

570. The Situation at the close of the year 1864 showed 
that the confederacy was fast going to pieces. Grant still 
kept up his siege at Petersburg, drawing the line tighter and 
tighter. Sheridan had destroyed Early's army and laid 
waste the valley of the Shenandoah. Thomas had broken 
Hood's army at Nashville. Sherman was encamped at 
Savannah after having cut the confederacy in twain a second 
time. The Alabama, the last of the formidable confederate 
cruisers, had ended her career of destruction and American 
commerce could once more feel free on the high seas. The 
great and powerful north was still as vigorous as ever, and 
its armies were now being led by some of the greatest gen- 
erals the world had ever known. The confederacy, now 
twice severed, with all communication Avith the outside world 
cut off, was practically starving to death. The end of the 
great rebellion was near at hand. 

IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1864 



Name of 
Battle 



Wilderness . . 

Resaca 

Cold Harbor . 

Atlanta 

Petersburg. . . 
Mobile Bay . . 
Winchester . . . 
Cedar Creek . . 
Nashville 



Place Where 
Fought 



Wilderness, Va. 
Resaca, Ga. 
Cold Harbor, Va. 
Atlanta, Ga. 
Petersburg, Va. 
Mobile, Ala. 
Winchester, Va. 
Cedar Creek, Va. 
Nashville, Tenn. 



Date 



May .5-6. . 
May 14 15 
June 3 . . . 
July 22... 
July 30... 
Aug. .5 .. 
Oct. 19 . . . 
Oct. 19... 
Dec. 15 . 



Commanding 

General of 
Union Army 



Lieut.-Gen. U. S. 

Grant 
Ma j. -Gen. W. T. 

Sherman 
Lieut.-Gen. U.S. 

Grant 
Maj.-Gen. W. T. 

Sherman 
Lieut.-Gen. U. S. 

Grant 
Rear-Admiral D. 

G. Farragut 
Maj.-Gen. P. H. 

Sheridan 
Maj.-Gen. P. H. 

Sheridan 
Maj.-Gen. G. H. 

Thomas 



Commanding 
General of Con- 
federate Army 



Gen. R. E. Lee 

Gen. J E. John- 
ston 
Gen. R. E. Lee 

Gen. J. E. John- 
ston 
Gen. R, E. Lee 

Admiral F. Bu- 
chanan 

Lieut.-Gen. J. A. 
Early 

Lieut.-Gen. J. A. 
Early 

Gen. J. B. Hood 



448 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

THE YEAR 1865 
THE EN'D OF THE WAR 

571. Plan of Operations for 1865. — After having thrown 
his army almost completely around Petersburg, Grant was 
content to let the siege drag along, awaiting the result of 
Sherman's march through Georgia, and Sheridan's campaign 
in the Shenandoah valley. As the winter wore away, the 
confederate prospects became more and more desperate, Lee 
himself acknowledging that the rebellion was at the end of 
its tether. As the year 1865 opened. Grant recalled Sheri- 
dan from the Shenandoah valley, to move with his cavalry 
in and around Eichmond, cutting the railroads and destroy- 
ing supplies. He now planned two campaigns: (1) He 
directed Sherman to move northward through the Carolinas 
to the vicinity of Goldsboro, with a view of preventing rein- 
forcements being sent to Lee, and also of preventing that 
general's escape, should he fly south; (2) Grant himself, 
with the army of the Potomac, now numbering 125,000 men, 
resolved on capturing both Petersburg and Richmond, and 
forcing the surrender of Lee's entire army. 

I^ORTH AND SOUTH 

572. Condition of the Confederacy. — The condition of the 
confederacy at this time was pitiable in the extreme. Its 
finances were in utter ruin; a billion dollars of debt had 
been incurred without prospect of paying a cent thereof; 
food products were scarce ; the condition of the people in 
every locality as regards food supply was desperate. The 
army was on short rations— some days Lee's army being 
almost without food. The prices paid for food and clothing 
and all articles of merchandise were fabulous. The con- 
federate army was being deserted at that time by the 
thousands. The age limits of service in the southern army 
were now placed from fourteen to sixty, — a fact which 
caused General Butler to remark that "the confederacy 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 449 

was robbing both the cradle and the grave." The 
spirit which had kept the rebellion alive was rapidly dis- 
appearing. With starvation staring them in the face, 
many in both the army and the country were ready to 
give up the struggle. 

573. Condition "of the Union. — At no time since^the begin- 
ning of^the war did hopes run so high in the north ; all felt 
that the end was in sight. While the draft had been 
resorted to in the north to force men into the union 
service, still the draft bill was of little value other than 
that it served to quicken the more honorable and loyal 
method of volunteer enlistment. Although Grant's losses 
in the campaign against Richmond had been enormous, 
yet his ranks were soon filled up, and the army of the 
Potomac at the beginning of 1865 was in reality one of the 
most formidable veteran armies ever gathered together in 
the world. There had been years of gloom and despond- 
ency, of fault-finding, of discontent ; there had been times 
when the fate of the union hung in the balance; but all 
this was passed, and the whole people, now that they had 
time to reflect, began to realize that the nation owed its very 
life to the genius and lofty patriotism of the patient, kindly- 
natured, great-souled Lincoln. An effort had been put 
forth by the malcontents in November, 1864, to defeat 
his reelection, George B. McClellan being the candidate 
against him. But the loyal north flocked to the support of 
the administration, and Lincoln was reelected by the largest 
vote which a presidential candidate had up to that time 
received in the history of the republic. 

574. Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address. — Once again, 
on the ^4th of March, 1865, Lincoln stood on the east 
steps of the national capitol and delivered his inaug- 
ural address, closing with the memorable words, * 'Fondly 
.do we hope — fervently do we pray — that this mighty 
scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God 
wills that it continue until all the wealth piled up by 



450 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the bondman's two hundred fifty years of unrequited toil 
shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with 
the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as 
was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said, 
'The judgments of God are true and righteous altogether.' 
With malice towards none ; with charity for all ; with firm- 
ness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us 
strive to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's 
wounds ; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, 
and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may 
achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among our- 
selves, and with all nations." 

sherma:n^'s last campaign 

575. Sherman Marches North. — After resting his troops 
at Savannah, Sherman, on the 1st day of February, resumed 
his march. He now turned northward, through the 
Carolinas, with Goldsboro, North Carolina, as his objective 
point. His purpose was to devastate those states, carry the 
hardships of war to the very door of their inhabitants, and 
destroy the southern railroads leading into Eichmond, — 
thereby cutting off Lee's army from all chance of securing 
supplies from the south. He arrived at Columbia, the 
capitol of South Carolina, on the 17th of February, and 
found the city in flames. He at once directed his troops to 
assist in extinguishing the fire, but before the conflagration 
could be checked, all public buildings and workshops, and 
many large business blocks had been swept away. On Feb- 
ruary 18, Sherman received word that Charleston had been 
evacuated. 

576. Johnston's Army Repulsed. — While encamped at 
Columbia, Sherman learned that Lee had sent a detachment 
of his troops south to check the union advance, and further, 
that General Joseph E. Johnston had been recalled to take 
command of these troops. He accordingly moved rapidly 
forward toward Goldsboro. On March IG, he came upon a 



ABRAHAM LINCOL]^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 



451 



part of Johnston's army near 
Averysboro, and defeated it. On 
the 19th of March, he met John- 
ston's whole force at Bentonville, 
and the confederate army again 
went down to defeat. On the 
23d of March, Sherman reached 
his objective point at Goldsboro, 
four hundred twenty-five miles 
from Savannah, where he was 
joined by reinforcements under 
General Schofield, sent in from 
the Atlantic coast by Grant. 



N^O R T i-l C A R O^ 1 N A °< 
I \A vfirv abort) • ^ 

itOllV 




j^Iiei'tiian^H Marcli Xortli. 



grant's last campaign 

577. Fort Steadman and Five Forks. — In the meantime 
Grant had been impatient to force the evacuation of the 
two besieged cities. By the last of March, he was ready for 
his final movement against the intrenchments at Petersburg, 
Meanwhile, Lee had been planning to escape, but before 
doing so he resolved to strike one blow, which he hoped 
would aid in his escape. Accordingly, on the 25th of 
March he assailed the union line at Fort Steadman, but in 
the attempt he signally failed, being repulsed with fearful 
loss. Sheridan a week later (April 1) advanced to Five 
Forks, in Lee's rear, south and west from Petersburg. Here 
Sheridan was furiously attacked, but after a hard-fought 
battle, he forced nearly five thousand hungry and starving 
confederate soldiers to lay down their arms and become 

prisoners of war. 

578. Petersburg and Richmond 
Fall. — On the night of April 1, 
Grant issued the order and all 
the union batteries began a gen- 
eral bombardment of the conf ed- 
erate works. The heavy 




Appomattox C. 
• -^~'^- — ) / 

V^l R G I N 

Petersburg 
"Fhre ForksV- 
X.^_Fort Ste"!! 
L.ast Battles. 



452 HISTOKY OF THR UXITED STATES 

cannonading was kept up until five o'clock on the 
morning of April 2, when Grant ordered a general assault 
upon the confederate left. The resistance was stubborn, 
but nothing could withstand the heroic charges of the 
union troops. Both Petersburg and Richmond were doomed 
to fall. Lee telegraphed from Petersburg to Jefferson Davis 
at Richmond that the two cities must be immediately evacu- 
ated. Davis received the dispatch while in his pew at 
church, and hastily flew south. He was afterward captured 
in Georgia and sent as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe, to be 
released on bail two years later, and, through northern 
leniency, never brought to trial. Lee, gathering together 
his now depleted army, sought safety in flight, hoping still 
to unite with Johnston's army and defeat Sherman's victori- 
ous western troops ere Grant could come to his assistance. 
The following day both Petersburg and Richmond were 
entered by the national troops. 

579. Lee Surrenders at Appomattox — April 9. — Grant 
immediately ordered Sheridan to cut oft' Lee's retreat, and 
he himself followed close upon the heels of the confederate 
army. Much fighting was indulged in between the fleeing 
and the pursuing armies. Lee was finally brought to bay 
near Appomattox Courthouse, where, on the 9th of April, 
1865, he surrendered his entire army as prisoners of war. 

By the terms of the surrender, Lee's men were to lay down 
their arms and give their pledge that they would not serve 
against the national government until regularly exchanged. 
OflRcers were permitted to retain their side-arms, private 
horses, and baggage. Grant also agreed that all privates 
in the cavalry and artillery should be permitted to take 
home their own horses since they would *'need them for the 
spring plowing." Lee feelingly spoke of the pitiable con- 
dition of his men, stating that they had been two days with- 
out food. Whereupon, the magnanimous Grant at once 
sent a large drove of oxen and a wagon-train of provisions, 
as a free will gift to the confederate soldiers. 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 



453 



Within a few days Johnston yielded to Sherman in North 
Carolina, and soon all organized resistance to the authority 
of the national government ceased. Secession had run its 
course; the war of the rebellion had reached its end! 



IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1865 



Name of 
Battle 



Fort Fisher. 
Mobile 



Benton ville . 
Five Forks. . 



Appomattox 
Campaign 



Place Where 
Fought 



Fort Fisher, N.C. 
Mobile, Ala. 

Bentonville, N.C 
Five Forks, Va. 
Richmond, Va. 



Date 



Jan. 15 

March 17- 
April 12... 

March 19-21 

April 1 

April 9 



Commanding 
General of 
Union Army 



Commanding 
General of Con- 
federate Army 



Maj.-Gen. A. H, 

Terry 
Maj.-Gen. E. R, 

Canby 



Maj.-Gen. W. T. 

Sherman 
Maj.-Gen. P. H. 

Sheridan 
Lieut. -Gen. U.S., Gen. R. E. Lee 

Grant 



Gen. B. Bragg 



Maj.-Gen. D. 
Maury 



H. 



Gen. J. E. John- 
ston 

Maj.-Gen. G. E. 
Pickett 



ASSASSINATION OF LINCOLN 

580. After Appomattox. — Although the event had been 
anticipated, the news of Lee's surrender passed through 
the loyal states like an electric shock. The president issued 
a proclamation of thanksgiving, and the whole nation 
responded as with one voice. During all the trying period of 
the civil war, a statesman, — such as the nation had not known 
since the days of Washington, — had safely conducted the 
affairs of state through the most perilous crisis in the history 
of the republic. No greater American has yet lived than 
the tender-hearted, broad-gauged, generous Lincoln. His 
famous words, uttered in 1858, now seemed like prophecy — 
*'a house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe that 
this government cannot endure permanently half slave and 
half free; I do not expect the union to be dissolved; I do 
not expect the house to fall ; but I do expect it w^ill cease to 
be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other." 

Now that the union had been restored, and the country had 
become "all free," thoughtful and anxious men in every 
section of the republic looked to the great Lincoln to point 
the way to the restoration of the southern states to their old 



454 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

position in the union. He had been born in the south, and 
as an old-time Whig had associated much with southern 
leaders. He knew the temper of the southern people as no 
northern man could know it. On the afternoon of the 14th 
of April he dismissed his cabinet meeting with the words, 
*'We must now begin to act in the interest of peace." 

581. Death of Lincoln. — On that very night of the now 
historic 14th of April, 1865, the country was startled by a 
message flashed over the wires from Washington that Presi- 
dent Lincoln, while in attendance upon a performance at 
Ford's theater, had been shot by John Wilkes Booth, — a 
brilliant, though dissolute actor of the national capital. 
The president was immediately removed from his box at the 
theater to a house across the street, where the whole nation 
anxiously awaited the verdict of the surgeons who had been 
summoned to his bedside. That verdict fell like a blow 
upon the country, — the wound was pronounced fatal ! On 
the following day the president passed away, surrounded by 
members of his family, his cabinet, and many other anxious 
watchers. As the great Emancipator breathed his last the 
big-hearted secretary of war, Edwin M. Stanton, sobbed aloud, 
*'Now he belongs to the ages". . . . "There lies the most per- 
fect ruler of men the world has ever seen." This eloquent 
tribute of the great war secretary, spoken in tears at the bed- 
side of his dead chief, is to-day the final verdict of mankind. 

682. After Lincoln's Death. — This startling event came 
close upon the welcome news from Appomattox. National 
joy was thus suddenly changed to national sorrow. The 
whole nation mourned the loss of 

The kindly — earnest, brave, foreseeing man, 
Sagacious, patient, dreading praise, not blame, 
New birth of our new soil, the first American.* 

But the wretch who had committed the cowardly deed was 
not to escape punishment, for the nation 

Wept with the passion of angry grief.* 
* Lowell. 



ABEAHAM LINCOLK AND THE CIVIL WAR 465 

Booth fled, but was soon brought to bay in a barn, near 
an old farmhouse in Maryland, where, on refusing to sur- 
render, he was not taken alive. A conspiracy was soon 
unearthed in Washington. On the night of the president's 
assassination an attempt was made upon the life of Secretary 
of State Seward, which was foiled by the vigorous action of 
Seward's son, who, in a hand-to-hand encounter, ejected 
from his father's sick chamber, one Payne, a self-confessed 
member of this band of conspirators. Payne and three 
others of the conspirators were afterwards hanged, while a 
few more who were found guilty on the charge of aiding 
the plot were imprisoned for life. 

THE COST OF THE WAR 

583. In Men and in Treasure. — During the war more than 
2,200,000 men enlisted on the union side and half that num- 
ber on the confederate side. Nearly 110,000 union soldiers 
and sailors were killed, or died from wounds received in bat- 
tle. The total number of deaths from all causes amounted 
to more than 360,000 on the union side; to about 300,000 on 
the confederate. It will thus be seen that on both sides a 
total of 3,700,000 men were under arms on the continent 
within a period of four years, — from April, 1861, to April, 
1865. Within that same four years 660,000 men laid down 
their lives in the camp or on the field of battle. 

The total cost of the war to the national government was 
$3,250,000,000. The cost of the war to the seceded states 
was at least $1,750,000,000, making a total war expenditure 
in the four years of five billion dollars. In the last year of 
the war, the total amount appropriated by congress for the 
maintenance and support of the union army was $516,214,- 
131, — an average of nearly one and one-half million dollars 
per day. 

684. The Finances of the War. — To raise the vast amount of 
money necessary to carry on the war, the national government 
resorted to two methods — taxation and loans. The war tar- 



456 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

iffs, sometimes called the Morrill Tariffs, were first laid in 
1861. Each succeeding session of congress, from 1862 to 
1865, passed some amendment to the original bill. Congress 
also levied internal taxes, — upon incomes and salaries; upon 
trades and callings; upon nearly all home manufactures; 
and upon the gross receipts of railroad, steamboat, and 
express companies. A stamp-tax was also laid upon all legal 
and public documents. This system of direct and indirect 
taxes produced an annual revenue of about $300,000,000. 

This amount not being sufficient to meet the enormous 
expenses of the government, the secretary of the treasury 
now began to borrow money on the credit of the United 
States. For these loans government bonds were issued bear- 
ing interest at various rates and payable at the option of the 
government after a certain number of years. Treasury 
notes, too, were issued to the amount of nearly a half billion 
dollars. This paper money became known as the ''green- 
back currency." To aid the government in carrying on its 
financial operations, congress established and perfected the 
national banking system. 

PROGEESS DURING THE WAR 

585. Improvements in Arms. — The war called forth the 
inventive genius of the north. The improvements in fire 
arms, heavy cannon, explosives, torpedoes, and all that goes to 
make war terrible and frightful, marked an epoch in the 
manufacture of the implements and munitions of war. The 
success of the Monitor revolutionized the construction of the 
navies of the world. The practical application of the tele- 
graph on the field of battle was demonstrated. The methods 
of feeding, clothing, and transporting large armies excited the 
admiration of the military experts sent from Europe to wit- 
ness the progress of the war. 

586. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. — Through 
the loyal women of the north, the suffering and hardships of 
army life were lessened. Nurses were sent into every hos- 



ABRAHAM LIXCOLN AXD THE CIVIL WAR 457 

pital and army camp to look after the sick, and care for the 
wounded. The Sanitary Commission and the Christian 
Commission did a work unequaled by any similar body in the 
history of war. Nearly twenty million dollars were raised 
and expended, without waste, by these splendid organiza- 
tions, which sent vast quantities of needed supplies to the 
army. Through their help thousands of soldiers were better 
fed and more warmly clothed. Delicate food was provided 
for the sick and ailing, and greater comforts placed in the 
army hospitals. Through the Christian Commission thou- 
sands of Bibles and large quantities of high-class literature 
were distributed among the soldiers. This commission in 
every way aided in securing and maintaining a high moral 
standard among the men who composed the armies of the 
republic. Nor was the work of these two commissions 
devoted solely to the armies in the field. The widow and 
the orphan were tenderly cared for and comforted. 

587. Growth: New States. — While the south was devas- 
tated by the ravages of war, the progress of the northern 
states was steadily maintained. Two new states were 
admitted to the union, — West Virginia coming in in 1863 as 
the thirty-sixth state, and Nevada in 1864 as the thirty- 
seventh. It will thus be seen that the country grew in spite 
of the war. Lincoln recognized this on the very night of his 
second election, when the returns showed that the voting 
strength of the country in 1864 was greater than it was in 
1860. During the decade in which the war occurred, the 
population of the country increased over seven million, and 
the total wealth of the country leaped from sixteen billions 
to more than thirty billions of dollars. Manufactures had 
thrived ; internal commerce had prospered ; the great west 
had steadily grown. War and national growth were carried 
on side by side. While granting appropriations to meet the 
expenses of the war, congress at the same time passed a lib- 
eral homestead act, and made large grants of land to the 
Union Pacific railroad, — which line was soon to join the 



458 HISTORY OF THE U2!^ITED STATES 

Atlantic to the Pacific and make it possible for one to 
ride from ocean to ocean across the continent. 

THE UNION" ARMY DISBANDS 

588. The Grand Review at Washington. — When Lee sur- 
rendered, April 9, 1865, there were more than a million union 
soldiers under arms on the continent. Many Europeans pre- 
dicted that the government could not peaceably disband such 
a large force of men. They urged that when the soldiers 
were once released from''the restraint of army discipline, riot 
and bloodshed would follow in every section of the union. 
The people of the European countries, with their large 
standing armies, could not appreciate the difference between 
a standing army maintained by force of government, and a 
volunteer citizen soldiery maintained by patriotism. Europe's 
fears were altogether groundless. By November 1, 1865, 
fully 800,000 men had been mustered out of service, *' with- 
out a fancy in any mind that there was anything else to do." 
However, "before the great army melted away into the 
greater body of citizens, the soldiers enjoyed one final 
triumph, — a march through the capital undisturbed by death 
or danger, under the eyes of the highest commanders, mili- 
tary and civilian, and the representatives of the people whose 
nationality they had saved." 

For two whole days (May 23 and 24) the army of the 
Potomac, "which for four years had been the living bulwark 
of the national capital," and the army of the west, which 
had twice cut the confederacy in twain, marched in grand 
review along the full length of Pennsylvania Avenue, — the 
principal street of the national capital. On a platform in 
front of the White House stood Andrew Johnson, — made 
president by the sudden taking off of Lincoln, — and a large 
number of men prominent in army and public life, as well 
as many foreign representatives from the diplomatic corps. 
No mightier martial host was ever gathered together on the 
continent. These men within a few short months were to 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 459 

be engaged in the peaceful walks of life — to take up life's 
struggle where they had left it off four years before. The 
memories of the war, however, were not to be forgotten but 
to be kept alive in the "camps of peace" of the Grand Army 
of the Republic, organized the very first year following the 
close of the war. 

THE GRAND ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC 

689. The Grand Army. — The motto of the Grand Army 
of the Republic is "Friendship, Charity, and Loyalty," and 
all that these words imply, toward the comrades in arms and 
their country which they saved. The first post of the Grand 
Army of the Republic was organized at Decatur, Illinois, by 
Major B. F. Stephenson, of the 14th Illinois infantry, xlpril 
6, 1866. All the posts in a state constitute a department. 
The first national convention met in Indianapolis, November 
20, 1866, and perfected the national organization, afterward 
known as the National Encampment Grand Army of the 
Republic. All honorably discharged union sailors and sol- 
diers of good moral character of the war are eligible to mem- 
bership. The second meeting of the National Encampment 
was at Philadelphia in January, 1868, where GeneralJohn A. 
Logan was elected commander-in-chief. He ordered May 
30 to be observed as Memorial Day for the purpose of strew- 
ing with flowers the graves of comrades who][died in defence 
of their country. Memorial Day, sometimes erroneously 
called "Decoration Day," is a legal holiday in many states. 
The rules and regulations of the Grand Army of the Repub- 
lic expressly forbid the use of the organization for partisan 
purposes. 

ASSOCIATED ORGANIZATIONS 

590. The First Organization of Women for active coopera- 
tion with the Grand Army of the Republic was at Portland, 
Maine, in 1869. Various societies of women with patriotic 
objects perfected a state organization at Fitchburg, Massachu- 



460 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

setts, in 1879, under the title Women's Belief Corps. All loyal 
women of good moral character are eligible to membership. 
The Ladies of the Grand Army of the Eepublic, organized 
in 1881, is composed only of women who are the wives, 
sisters, mothers or daughters of honorably discharged union 
soldiers, sailors, or marines who served in the war. Each 
has a local, a state, and a national organization. Their 
object is to assist the Grand Army of the Republic in its high 
and holy mission and encourage and sympathize with them 
in their noble work of charity; to extend needful aid to 
members in sickness and distress ; to aid sick soldiers, sailors, 
and marines ; to do all in their power to alleviate suffering. 
Other associated organizations of the Grand Army of the 
Republic, but not subordinate to it, are the Sons of Veterans, 
the Union Veteran Legion, Union Veterans' Union, Union 
Ex-prisoners of War Association, the Loyal Legion, and the 
Veterans' Rights Union. The veterans of the civil war are 
rapidly answering the last roll call. Soon taps will be 
sounded in every post hall in this land. History will record 
that no other organizations on earth can lay claim to such 
glorious and precious memories. 



CHAPTER XIV 
FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES 

RECONSTRUCTION 

1865-1877 

JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 

REPUBLICAN: 1665-1869 

591. Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth president of the 
United States, was the son of poor white people living in 
North Carolina. At four years of age he was an orphan ; at 
ten he was apprenticed to a tailor. Being an ambitious boy, 
he learned to read with the help of one of the workmen. Writ- 
ing, however, he did not yet aspire to, and it was not until 
after his marriage that he learned the art, his wife being his 
teacher. At sixteen he set up as a tailor on his own account. 
Settling in east Tennessee, he became the leader of the 
Tennessee Democrats, who opposed the rule of the slave- 
holding aristocracy of the state. In 1835 he was elected to 
the state legislature ; in 1841 he became state senator; and in 
1843, congressman, holding that office for ten years. He 
then became governor of Tennessee, serving two terms. In 
1857 he was elected United States senator, and proved him- 
self a bold and active enemy of slavery. In 1862 President 
Lincoln made him military governor of Tennessee; in 1864 
the Republicans nominated him for vice-president, though he 
was still a Democrat, and in 1865 he became president. 

Johnson was a man of lofty principles and pure morals, and 
had a strong and keen intellect. He was, however, obstinate, 
quick-tempered, and lacking in the essential element of tact. 
His character accounts for the difficulties he met while pres- 
ident. 

461 



4G2 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

After having been president he continued active in politics, 
and though several times defeated for office, became United 
States senator once more in 1875. 

Johnson was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, December 
29, 1808, and died near Carter's Station, Tennessee, July 
29, 1875. 

592. The Problems. — A prolonged war always leaves a 
country in a disorganized condition, especially in regard to 
its finances and its business life, and tends to breed corrup- 
tion in public affairs. The war between the states had 
not only these effects, but one other result far different 
from these. It left the southern states ruined and con- 
quered, without governments and without the materials from 
which to erect governments. It was impossible to turn the 
states over to those who had just been fighting against the 
union. If the fruits of the war were not to be lost, it 
was felt that the national government must take charge 
of these states for a time. But that, said many, was 
contrary to the fundamental idea of the union, that 
the states must manage their own affairs. In this diffi- 
culty, many people declared that the southern states no 
longer existed as states, but simply as territories of the 
United States ; others asserted that they were still states, 
but without the rights and functions of states, and that the 
central government could impose conditions at their restora- 
tion. This last was the theory generally adopted. The 
process of restoring the seceded states to their old position 
was called reconstruction. 

Then came other questions: On what terms should they 
come back? Should these terms be easy or harsh? Who had 
the right to dictate what they should be, the president or 
congress? Finally and most difficult and most important of 
all, what situation was the colored man to occupy? 

693. Thirteenth Amendment. — In regard to the colored 
man, one point had been quickly settled. An amendment 
to the constitution had been proposed by congress in Feb- 



FROM JOHXSON TO HAYES 463 

ruary, 1865, abolishing slavery forever. So the colored man 
was not to be a slave. But was he to have privileges and 
powers such as the white man possessed? Was he to vote? 
Was he to hold office? Or was he to be kept in a condi- 
tion of inferiority, though free? 

594. Beginning of Reconstruction. — President Lincoln had 
early taken up the problem of reconstruction. He believed 
that the president could restore the states to the union without 
the interference of congress, and acted on that supposition. In 
December, 1863, he issued a proclamation granting pardon 
and restoring their property to those who gave up secession 
and swore to defend the constitution and all the laws and 
proclamations emancipating the slaves. Only the most 
prominent leaders were refused these conditions. Lincoln 
then said that when one-tenth of the qualified citizens who 
had voted in 1860 should take the oath, and set up state gov- 
ernments, the president would recognize these as the lawful 
governments of the states. Thus reconstruction would be 
achieved, and by the president alone. Under this plan 
Arkansas was reconstructed in 1863; and Louisiana and 
Tennessee in 1864. Congress, however, did not agree with 
the president that he had the power to reconstruct states. 
On the contrary, it claimed that power for itself. It there- 
fore opposed his plans, and refused to admit senators and 
representatives from the newly-constituted states. 

595. Johnson's Policy. — Naturally, Johnson adopted Lin- 
coln's plans, and since congress was not in session when he 
became president, and would not be for eight months, he 
could do as he pleased for that period of time. He therefore 
issued a proclamation of pardon in May, 1865, very much like 
that issued by President Lincoln. The reconstructed states, 
however, must ratify the thirteenth amendment abolishing 
slavery. The conditions being accepted by the southern 
states, excepting only Texas, he proceeded in accordance with 
Lincoln's ideas, to reconstruct seven more states, Texas 
being the only one now left out. The acceptance of the 



464 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 

thirteenth amendment by these states made it part of the 
constitution, and it was declared in force December 18, 1865. 

696. Legislation against the Freedmen. — Several of the 
southern states passed laws virtually restoring slavery. 
Thus, in Virginia, all persons who would not work for 
the wages commonly paid were declared vagrants, and 
could be forced to work; in Mississippi colored orphans 
and minors without means of support were to be hired out to 
masters until they became of age. This was slavery for that 
length of time. That there might be no mistaking the 
intention of the legislature, the master was given the right 
to whip the servant. Colored persons without employment 
were declared vagrants, and were to be arrested and fined. If 
unable to pay the fine, as they undoubtedly would be, they 
were to be hired out for a term of service. They were 
forbidden to carry arms or to preach the gospel with- 
out a license, and if they did so were fined. In South 
Carolina a similar code of laws was enacted, but additions 
were made to it — no freedman could have a trade or 
occupation other than agriculture or contract service without 
paying a special license of from SlO to $100. 

597. The Congressional Theory. — Congress met in Decem- 
ber, 1866. Most of the Republican members were strongly 
opposed to the president's reconstruction ideas. They 
were displeased, too, at the acts of the new southern legisla- 
tures. Were the southern states to be permitted to accept 
the thirteenth amendment, and then in mockery trample it 
under foot by making laws utterly nullifying its provisions? 
Assuredly not, replied the Eepublicans, who refused to rec- 
ognize Johnson's work, and would not allow the senators 
and representatives from the southern states to take their 
seats. 

Led by Representative Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, 
and Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, the radical 
Republicans began to prepare a reconstruction plan of their 
own. They made good their right to do so by declaring that 





ANDREW JOHNSON 
THADDKXJS STEVENS 



CHARLES STJMNER 
WILLIAM H. SEWARD 



Reco:n^structio]s Leaders 



FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES 465 

the states out of the union were in the condition of terri- 
tories, and so could be readmitted only by congressional 
action. Hence the president on his own authority had no 
power whatever to restore those states. Acting on this 
theory, the radical Eepublicans declared that the southern 
states should not be considered as in the union until congress 
assented. 

598. The Freedmen's Bureau. — The Republicans then 
proceeded to thwart the nullifying laws passed by the 
southerners. The federal troops, which were still in the 
south, were ordered to stay there and protect the colored 
man in his new-found liberty. This was effective. Congress 
then, in February, 1866, passed a bill continuing the Freed- 
men's Bureau, which had been created in 1865 to take care 
of sick and helpless freedmen, and to render assistance of all 
kinds to the colored people. The president vetoed the 
bill. In July congress passed it again, and when the presi- 
dent again vetoed it, they passed it over his veto. This was 
a fatal blow to the president's reconstruction plans, for it 
proved that his opponents had possession of two-thirds of 
both houses and could always pass bills over the veto. 

599. The Fourteenth Amendment. — Congress then cleared 
the way for its plan of reconstruction by passing a Civil 
Rights Bill, which gave the freedmen the same rights to *'life, 
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" which the whites pos- 
sessed, but did not include political rights, such as the 
privilege of voting or holding office. The president vetoed 
the bill, declaring that it was unconstitutional. Congress 
immediately passed it over the veto. To avoid the objection 
of unconstitutionality, however, and to make certain that it 
should never be repealed, the Republicans resolved to force 
the Civil Rights Bill into the constitution. Consequently a 
fourteenth amendment was proposed. This enacted that 
"all persons born or naturalized in the United States" were 
citizens of the United States and of the state in which they 
lived. No state was to diminish in any way the civil rights 



466 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

of any citizen. The federal courts were to be open to all cit- 
izens. Thus the colored man would be a citizen of the United 
States, and could appeal to the national courts against such 
laws as those passed by the reconstructed states. The 
amendment did not compel the states to grant the privilege 
of voting. That the state could grant or refuse, but if 
refused, the representation of the state in congress was to be 
reduced in proportion to the number of those who could not 
vote. The third section of the amendment made it impos- 
sible for those confederate officers who had been in the serv- 
ice of the United States or of a state before the war to vote 
or to hold office. This restricted the president's pardoning 
power, and would also throw government in the scJuthern 
states into the hands of union men and the freedmen. The 
fourth section guaranteed the debt of the United States, and 
at the same time made all debts of the confederacy null and 
void. These provisions were the same as those which had 
been put in the Civil Rights Bill. The fourteenth amend- 
ment was declared in force July 28, 1868. 

600. The Congressional Election of 1866. — The election of 
representatives to congress in 1860 was looked forward to as 
decisive as to the will of the northern people in regard to the 
fourteenth amendment and of the struggle between president 
and congress. If the people sided with the president they 
would elect representatives favorable to his plan ; if not, they 
would elect representatives favorable to the congressional plan. 
The campaign was very warm, and the president made most 
undignified and violent speeches against his opponents, abus- 
ing congress, asserting that certain congressmen were trying 
to destroy the constitution, and more than hinting that the 
same individuals wished to have him assassinated. Such 
foolish and venomous talk made him contemptible, and 
helped materially to ruin the cause which he championed. 
As a consequence, the new congress was to be more bitterly 
opposed to the president than the old one. 

601. Congress Limits Johnson's Powers.— While the elec- 



FKOM JOHNSOK TO HAYES 467 

tions were taking place, all the southern states, excepting 
only Tennessee, had contemptuously rejected the fourteenth 
amendment, which could not become part of the constitu- 
tion without their assent. Congress at once admitted Ten- 
nessee to the union, and decreed that the other ten seceded 
states could not come back until they had ratified the amend- 
ment. The Republicans then carried out a program which 
put them in complete control. In the first place, the con- 
gress just elected was authorized to meet on the 4th of 
March, 1867, instead of in December. This would give the 
president no chance whatever to carry out measures which 
congress opposed. The Republicans next passed the Tenure 
of Office Act, by which the president was forbidden to dismiss 
any government official without the consent of the senate; 
they then enacted a third measure which made General 
Grant supreme as head of the army, so that the president's 
control over the troops was taken away. 

602. The Completed Reconstruction Measures. — The con- 
gress elected in 1866 met on the 4th of March, 1867, and at 
once completed the reconstruction measures. The ten 
southern states still outside the union were divided into five 
military districts, over each of which a general was placed to 
carry out by military force the policy of congress. The 
measures of reconstruction were then detailed. The state 
governments recognized by the president were set aside; all 
citizens of the southern states, white or colored, not excluded 
by the fourteenth amendment, were to elect delegates to state 
conventions. The conventions would draw up new constitu- 
tions. These constitutions, however, must allow the freedmen 
to vote. The constitution was next to be ratified by the same 
voters who had elected the delegates to the convention. 
The state was then ready to enter the union, but before it 
came in, it must adopt the fourteenth amendment. Until 
that was done the military officers would remain in control. 

603. Reconstruction Carried Out. — This plan put the power 
in the southern states into the hands of southern union men 



468 HISTORY or the uxited states 

and the freedmen. The result was that the conventions in Ar- 
kansas, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Louisiana, 
and Florida accepted the conditions of congress, approved 
the fourteenth amendment, and were recognized as being 
states with full state powers. The work was completed in 
June, 1868. Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas refused to accept 
the fourteenth amendment; Georgia, after accepting it, 
passed laws against the colored man, and was refused admis- 
sion. These four states, therefore, remained subject to mili- 
tary rule. 

604. Military Rule in the South. — The military govern- 
ments set up by congress had absolute power in the south- 
ern states until reconstruction was complete. The generals 
in command made regulations; dismissed and appointed civil 
officers at pleasure; set aside the laws and institutions of the 
various states, and put military courts in the place of the 
civil courts. The colored people were protected in their 
rights and encouraged to vote and hold office. 

605. The New Governments. — Where reconstruction was 
completed, the new governments usually fell into the hands 
of the most incapable and least competent classes of the 
population. Not infrequently white men, contemptuously 
called "scalawags," men without property or character, and 
without experience of political life, controlled the colored vote 
to enable them to secure the offices and plunder the country. 
They were joined by a number of northern men of much more 
ability and political experience, but most of whom came to 
the south to make fortunes. These people were called 
*' carpet-baggers," because in many cases they brought all 
their worldly possessions with them in a carpet-bag. Some 
of them were honest and desired to help the south, but many 
were neither honest nor helpful. Legislatures made up of 
these classes voted vast sums of money to themselves and 
their friends. In South Carolina a mixed legislature fur- 
nished the statehouse in magnificent style : clocks cost $480 
each; mirrors, $750, and each member was voted a china 



FEOM JOHNSON^ TO HAYES 469 

cuspidor worth $8. At the end of each session all this 
magnificent furniture mysteriously disappeared, and the 
legislative halls had to be refurnished at equal expense. 
Many of the legislators, and even many of the judges, could 
neither read nor write. Some of these legislatures often 
voted money lavishly — even recklessly. In four years and a 
half the debt of Louisiana was increased by $106,000,000. 
Taxes became so oppressive that many impoverished southern 
planters could not pay them and had to part with the old 
plantations. 

606. The Impeachment of President Johnson. — Poor Presi- 
dent Johnson, left in an office without power, and, on 
account of the Tenure of Office Act, denied the pleasure 
of getting rid of officials who were obnoxious to him, 
struggled angrily and vainly against the will of the majority 
in congress. Finally, he resolved to dismiss Secretary Stan- 
ton, in spite of the Tenure Act, which forbade his dismiss- 
ing any official without the consent of the senate. Hereupon 
Stanton appealed to the house of representatives, which, on 
February 24, 1868, determined to impeach the president. 
The impeachment was brought before the senate, with the 
chief justice, for this purpose, its presiding officer. On May 
16 a vote was reached on the article charging Johnson with 
having broken the Tenure of Office Act. It was then found 
that two-thirds of the senate would not declare the president 
guilty, the vote being 35 for conviction to 19 against. Here- 
upon the impeachment failed. This trial produced the 
greatest excitement both in congress and throughout the 
country, and provoked much bitterness of party spirit. 

607. The State of Nebraska.— On March 1, 1867, Nebraska 
was admitted as the thirty-seventh state. The constitution 
of the new state not only granted freedom to all men, but 
the franchise to the negro. 

608. Mexico and the Monroe Doctrine. — During the civil 
war France had picked a quarrel with the republic of 
Mexico, and Napoleon III. had sent an expedition to that 



470 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

country in 1862. Once there, he refused to withdraw his 
army, and finally set up the luckless Archduke Maximilian 
of Austria as emperor of Mexico. The United States pro- 
tested at once, but could do nothing. When the war was 
over, however. Secretary Seward hinted to the French min- 
ister that the Monroe Doctrine was being violated by the 
constant presence of French troops in Mexico. Matters now 
wore a different face, and Napoleon recognized the situation 
and withdrew. The Emperor Maximilian, however, decided 
to remain. Thereupon the Mexicans took him captive, and 
on the 19th of June, 1867, executed him as a traitor. 

609. The Purchase of Alaska.— In 1867 the United States 
added Alaska to its territory by purchase from Russia. The 
credit of the annexation is Secretary Seward's. At the time 
there was much ridicule of the proceeding, and people were 
inclined to be indignant at the expenditure of over $7,000,- 
000 for a barren expanse of territory. Time, however, seems 
to have proved Seward's wisdom, since the mineral resources 
of the territory are of immense value. 

610. Election of 1868. — The Republicans were now tlirough 
with Johnson for good or ill. In 1868 they nominated Gen- 
eral Grant for president. Horatio Seymour of New York 
was the Democratic candidate. Grant was easily elected, 
receiving 214 electoral votes to Seymour's 80, 

grant's ADMINISTRATION 

REPUBLICAX: 1S69-1S77 

611. Ulysses S. Grant, eighteenth president of the United 
States, was the son of an Ohio farmer. In 1839 he was 
appointed a West Point cadet. On his graduation he was 
made a second lieutenant, and was soon engaged in the 
Mexican war with credit to himself. In 1854, after attain- 
ing the rank of captain, he retired and went into business in 
St. Louis until August, 1860, when he removed to Galena, 
Illinois, where he acted as clerk in his father's store. At 
the beginning of the war he was appointed colonel of volun- 



PEOM JOHXSON TO HAYES 471 

teers, and rose rapidly until he was made lieutenant-general 
with the command of all the armies in the field, March 2, 
1864. In 1868 he was elected president, and again in 1872. 

After his retirement Grant made a voyage around the 
world, which added to his fame both abroad and at home. 
In 1880 he was a candidate for a third term, but failed to 
receive the Republican nomination. The latter years of his 
life were employed in the writing of his "Personal Memoirs," 
a work creditable to his reputation as a soldier and as an 
author. 

Grant was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, April 27, 1822, 
and died July 23, 1885, at Mount McGregor, Xew York. 

612. The Union Pacific Railroad. — It had long been the 
opinion of the people of the United States that a railroad 
should be built to the Pacific coast so that the country 
might be bound firmly together. As it was impossible to 
get anyone to build this road without assistance, the gov- 
ernment loaned large sums of money and gave liberal grants 
of western land to the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific 
companies for the building of the road. With the help of 
these grants which the companies sold at a large profit, and 
by using Chinamen as laborers, the road was finished in 
1869. Great was the rejoicing over the completion of this 
gigantic task. 

613. The Fifteenth Amendment. — Just before Grant's 
inauguration, on the 26th of I'ebruary, 1869, congress pro- 
posed another amendment to the constitution which 
declared that the right to vote should "not be denied or 
abridged by the United States or any state on account of 
race, color, or previous condition of servitude." By the 
addition of this amendment it was expected that the right of 
the freedman to vpte could never be taken away. The ratifi- 
cation of the amendment was then made a condition of the 
reconstruction of the four southern states, Virginia, Georgia, 
Mississippi, and Texas, which were still out of the union. 
The amendment was declared in force March 30, 1870. 



472 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

614. The Ku-Klux Klan. — Many white people of the south, 

dissatisfied with the disturbed condition of southern politics 
under reconstruction, sought to defeat the party in power 
by the organization (1866) of a secret society known as the 
Ku-Klux Klan. Its members were bound by oath to obey 
the orders of their superiors, and an organized attempt 
was made to prevent the freedman from voting. Supersti- 
tious colored people were terrified by the appearance at 
night of ghostly figures masked and robed in white, who 
went groaning and howling about their cabins. Those who 
could not be scared by this mummery were dragged out of 
their huts, flogged severely, and sometimes killed. Later 
the Klan treated white men who assisted freedmen in the 
same way. Notices to leave the country were sent to such 
men, with a threat of death if the notice was not obeyed. 
Many murders resulted; by 1870 the society had established 
a reign of terror over a great part of the south, with the 
result that colored voters refrained from going to the polls. 

615. Force Bills. — The Ku-Klux became extremely vio- 
lent in 1870 and 1871. In May, 1870, without knowing who 
committed the outrages, congress passed a force bill to 
carry out the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments. By 
this law the United States courts were to try all cases of 
intimidation and bribery of voters, frauds at the ballot box, 
and all interference with elections or election officers. This 
was not sufficient, and in April, 1871, a second force bill 
was passed. Congress had now learned about the Ku-Klux, 
and this act was aimed against the dreaded society. Severe 
punishments were to be inflicted upon those who committed 
the outrages, and the president was allowed to use the army 
and navy to carry out the law. The authorities acted with 
decisive energy. Many men were arrested, tried, and sen- 
tenced to prison. Under this treatment the Ku-Klux 
quickly disappeared. 

616. Reconstruction Completed. — The year 1871 saw the 
end of unreconstructed states. Virginia was admitted in 



FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES 473 

January, Mississippi in February, Texas in March, 1870; 
and Georgia in January, 1871. This completed the work 
of reconstruction by congress. 

617. Military Authority Continued in the South. — The 
southern states, however, were not yet left to work out their 
own problems. Under the force bills the president had the 
power to keep troops in the south and to interfere in public 
affairs. As it was believed with only too much reason that the 
f reedmen would not be fairly treated, the rule of the bayonet 
was still continued. The result was constant turbulence, 
riots, and at times something like civil war in those states. 

618. The Treaty of Washington. — President Grant's first 
term was largely devoted to the settlement of foreign ques- 
tions. The most important problems were those involved in 
our relations with England. There were three : the fishery 
question ; the water boundary on the northwest ; and the Ala- 
bama question or the claim for damages by the United States 
for the injuries inflicted by confederate war vessels built in 
England, the most important of which was the Alabama. 
Eeverdy Johnson, minister to England, had tried to settle 
these points in 1869, but the treaty he made was so unsatis- 
factory that it was rejected with indignation, and not a few 
Americans began to talk excitedly of war Avith England. In 
1870, however, the question was taken up peaceably, and in 
1871 England and the United States signed the Treaty of 
Washington, by which the Americans received satisfaction 
in regard to the fisheries, and the other questions were to be 
settled by arbitration. The emperor of Germany was selected 
to decide upon the boundary dispute. The question at issue 
was as to the line down the straits between Vancouver Island 
and the mainland. If this boundary line passed through ' ' the 
channel" to the west of San Juan Island, it would leave that 
island to America ; if it passed through the channel to the 
east, the island would go to Great Britain. In 1872 the Ger- 
man emperor gave his decision in favor of the United States. 

619. The Alabama Claims : The Geneva Award. — The Ala- 



474 HISTORY OP THE UXITED STATES 

bama dispute was harder to settle. Our government claimed 
that as Great Britain had allowed the Alabama and other 
confederate privateers to be fitted out in her ports, she was 
responsible for the damage done by these privateers. Great 
Britain replied that no such rule of international law existed. 
The matter was left to five arbitrators, one each from Great 
Britain, the United States, Italy, Brazil, and Switzerland. 
In 1872 the court of arbitration, sitting at Geneva, Switzer- 
land, decided by a vote of four to one that Great Britain was 
responsible and should pay $15,500,000 in gold to the United 
States. The English were much displeased at the result. 
The verdict of the court was that a neutral nation must 
observe ''due diligence" to prevent its territory from being 
made the base of armed expeditions against another power 
and that the nation failing to use such "due diligence" 
must pay damages. 

620. Cuba: The Virginius— 1873.— In 1868 a rebellion 
broke out in the island of Cuba, and much sympathy was 
expressed in the United States for the Cubans. President 
Grant insisted that Americans should take no part in 
the contest, but many young men stole away to assist the 
natives, while arms and ammunition were sent from the 
United States. Naturally the Spaniards were enraged. In 
October, 1873, the captain of a Spanish man-of-war captured 
the Virginius, an American vessel, hauled down the Amer- 
ican flag, and proceeded to shoot the captain and fifty-six of 
the crew, nine of whom were American citizens. The 
excuse for all this was that the Virginius was a filibuster. 
This was probably true, but the seizing of an American ves- 
sel, the summary and brutal slaughter of American citizens, 
drove the country into a frenzy of rage. It required all the 
president's tact and firmness to keep off war. He straight- 
way demanded from Spain a humble apology and money 
damages. These the Spaniards gave, declaring that they 
had no intention of insulting the United States in seizing 
the Virginius. 



FROM JOHXSON TO HATES 475 

621. The Campaign of 1872. — During Grant's administra- 
tion, much corruption in the management of public affairs 
had come to light. Although the president was thoroughly 
honest and was known to be opposed to dishonest men and 
methods, still dissatisfaction with this condition of affairs 
led many Eepublicans to break away from their party. Many 
were displeased, too, with the continued military control of 
the south. In 1872 these Republicans, taking the name 
Liberal Republicans, made a bitter fight against the renom- 
ination of General Grant, unjustly insisting that he" was the 
source of all the corruption and misgovernment. When 
they found that they could not hinder his renomination, 
they put forward a candidate of their own, selecting Hor- 
ace Greeley, editor of the New York "Tribune," a very able 
but eccentric man. He was a staunch Republican, a bitter 
enemy of slavery and secession, and the most prominent sup- 
porter of a protective tariff. He was supposed to be a 
strong candidate, since for years the farmers of the country 
had taken their views of politics from what Greeley had to 
say in the weekly ' ' Tribune. ' ' His nomination by the Lib- 
eral Republicans, therefore, led the Democrats to hope that 
Grant could be beaten, and they, too, named Greeley as their 
candidate. But Greeley had been too violent a Republican 
to be pleasing to most Democrats. Grant easily won, 
although the Democrats elected a majority of the repre- 
sentatives to congress. 

622. The First Civil Service Reform Bill.— To check cor- 
ruption in office, and secure good men for the offices, con- 
gress passed in March, 1871, a civil service bill. In 
accordance with this, the smaller places in the government 
service, such as clerkships, were to be given to candidates on 
their merit, and not because of political favoritism. Unfortu- 
nately, congress was not in earnest in wanting reform. Pres- 
ident Grant wished to carry out the measure, but in 1874 
congress refused to vote money for the payment of the civil 
service board, and the reform perished for the time being. 



476 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

623. Demonetization of Silver— 1873 : Inflation Bill— 1874: 
Resumption Act — 1875. — Grant's second term was filled 
with financial questions. In 1873 congress passed a bill 
making gold the standard of J value in the United States, in 
other words, *' demonetizing silver," an act which later gave 
rise to much discussion and ill-feeling. In April, 1874, 
impelled by the belief of many citizens that "plenty of money 
was a good thing," congress passed a bill, known as the 
Inflation Bill, which would increase the paper money of the 
country enormously. President Grant, who believed that 
this would be a great evil, vetoed the bill. At this time 
the country had no gold or silver money in circulation, and, 
if the bill had been passed, it was unlikely that specie 
would have come into general circulation for many years. 
The business people of the country urged, that only by hav- 
ing gold or silver could business be put on a sound basis 
and prices kept from going constantly up and down. A 
one-dollar bill, measured in gold or silver, would not buy 
more than 80 or 90 cents' worth of goods, — thus paper money 
was not equal to its face value. The financial panic of 1873, 
in which thousands were ruined, was largely owing to the 
unsettled state of the finances, and the depreciated value of 
the paper currency. If more paper had been issued, a 
paper dollar would have been worth still less. Grant's veto, 
therefore, was a good one, and made him popular with many 
who had before disliked him. In order to hinder such bills 
in future, a demand was now made that the country should 
return to gold and silver money, or "resume payments in 
specie," as it was called. As a consequence, the Resump- 
tion Act was passed in January, 1875, which declared that 
after the first of January, 1879, the United States would 
pay all its debts in gold and silver, on demand. 

624. Trouble with the Sioux: Custer's Massacre — 1876. — 
In 1874 gold was found in the Black Hills, on the Sioux 
reservation. The whites poured in and began digging the 
gold, in spite of the protests of the Indians, The govern- 



FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES 477 

ment tried to settle the difficulty by moving the Sioux to a 
new reservation. They objected, and early in 1876, under 
the lead of "Sitting Bull," began war. The climax came in 
June, when General George A. Custer with 262 men came 
upon the Sioux in overwhelming numbers. A battle fol- 
lowed, which became a massacre, every one of Custer's band 
being killed, fighting desperately to the end. The mas- 
sacre struck horror into the people of the country. The 
government poured troops into the disputed territory, the 
Indians were forced to yield, and then affairs were left pre- 
cisely as before. 

625. Amnesty Bill— 1872: Withdrawal of Troops from 
the South — 1874 to 1877. — In 1872 congress passed a bill of 
amnesty pardoning all who took part in the war against the 
union, with the exception of about 350 of the most prom- 
inent leaders. Federal troops were still used in the south, 
however, to protect the colored man and many who wished 
to see him fairly dealt with in the right to vote and hold 
office as guaranteed in the constitution. The presence of 
these troops provoked constant trouble, riots, and outbreaks. 
The people of the north were now heartily tired of these 
difficulties. As President Grant said in 1874, "The whole 
public are tired out with these annual autumnal outbreaks 
in the south, and a great majority now are ready to con- 
demn any interference on the part of the government." 
Most of the troops were withdrawn in Grant's administra- 
tion. The reconstruction governments vanished wherever 
this took place. The election of 1874 was the turning 
point although there was still interference by the national 
government due to claims of fraud at the elections. It was 
not until 1876 that the national government ceased its 
watchfulness over southern elections. In 1877 President 
Hayes withdrew the troops entirely. The long struggle had 
divided the political parties of the south along race lines, — 
a condition most unfortunate for that part of the union. 
"The solid south" is the result. The colored man's right 



478 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to vote is not denied, but is rendered of no account by 
intimidation, and other methods, some of which to-day are 
being looked upon with apprehension by many serious- 
minded citizens in all parts of the union. 

626. The Credit Mobilier and Other Scandals : The Whiskey 
Ring. — In 1872 charges against the Union Pacific railroad 
were made. It was said that the builders of the road had 
spent $9,000,000 to bribe congressmen. This was proved 
false in 1873, but many congressmen were found to have 
taken stock in the road, and then to have voted it liberal 
assistance. This was known as the "Credit Mobilier Scan- 
dal," taking its name from the name of a Pennsylvania cor- 
poration. 

The administration itself was mixed up in two great scan- 
dals. The first of these involved the war department. 
Secretary Belknap and -some of the under officials were 
accused of selling offices, and of forcing officers to pay in 
order to hold their positions. In 1876 the house voted 
unanimously to impeach Belknap. He then resigned the 
secretaryship and escaped all punishment. The treasury 
department was also charged with several frauds. Some of 
its officials sold the right to collect taxes, the proceeds to be 
shared between the buyer and the treasury officials. In 
1874 the acting secretary resigned, as a consequence of the 
exposure of these frauds. B. H. Bristow of Kentucky 
became secretary, and immediately found himself face to 
face with the biggest fraud of all — the *' Whiskey Eing." 
Internal revenue officers and distillers of whiskey formed this 
ring with the purpose of cheating the government out of 
the revenue tax. By 1875 over $2,800,000 had thus been 
stolen. Bristow, with the president's hearty assistance, 
fought the ring and broke it down in many places. But 
president and secretary together were not able to overthrow 
it completely. In fact, the ring was so strongly supported, 
that in 1876 it forced the secretary out of office. The same 
corruption was active in many of the city governments of 



FROM JOHXSOX TO HAYES 479 

the country, especially in that of New York. Here the 
infamous "Tweed King" plundered right and left. Over 
$160,000,000 were stolen. In 1871 the city broke from 
the clutches of this ring and Tweed, the leader, was arrested, 
tried, convicted, and some years later died in jail. 

627. The Ninth Census— 1870.— The ninth census of the 
United States showed a total population of 38,558,378, — a 
gain of more than 7,000,000 people, and this, too, in spite of 
the civil war. Of this number, 4,880,009 were free c'olored 
persons. Since 1800 nearly 2,500,000 people had arrived 
from Europe — about half of them from the British Islands. 

628. Campaign of 1876. — Such was the situation the 
Republicans had to face in 1876. The Democrats were 
consequently very confident. They nominated Samuel J. 
Tilden, reform governor of New York, as their choice for 
president. The Republicans named Rutherford B. Hayes 
of Ohio. A third party now appeared in the field, called 
the Greenback party. It believed that the Resumption Act 
was unjust to the laboring man, who, it supposed, would be 
helped by a paper money not redeemable in specie. The 
party declared for unlimited greenbacks and nominated 
Peter Cooper of New Y'ork as their candidate for president. 
After a bitter contest, the campaign ended with no one cer- 
tainly elected. This result was due to the fact that the 
boards which counted the votes in Louisiana, Florida, and 
South Carolina threw out Democratic votes and declared 
the states Republican. They did this on the ground that 
the Democrats in these states cheated in the election. In 
Oregon also there was a dispute as to whether the state had 
voted for the Democratic or the Republican candidate. If 
Tilden received only one of all these disputed votes, he would 
be elected, while Hayes had to get them all. Both parties 
claimed the election. For a time it looked as if a civil war 
•was about to break out. 

629. The Electoral Commission. — At last, however, con- 
gress created a commission to decide the disputed votes. 



480 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

This commission was made up of five senators, five repre- 
sentatives, and five members of the supreme court. Out 
of the fifteen, eight were Republicans, seven Democrats. 
On every disputed question eight members voted for the 
Republican claims, seven for the Democratic. Hayes was 
declared elected by a vote of 185 in the electoral college to 
184 awarded to Tilden. William A. Wheeler of New York 
was declared elected vice-president. 




OWTIWEKTAL. £XPAKSIOX 



Vest from Greenwich 



CHAPTER XV 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 

EXPANSIO]Sr 

1877- 

HA yes's ADMINISTKATION 

REPUBLICAN: 1877-lS^l 

630. Rutherford Birchard Hayes, the nineteenth president 
of the United States, was the son of an Ohio farmer. He 
was educated in the common schools and at Kenyon college, 
Ohio. After leaving college, he studied law, was admitted 
to the bar, and soon proved himself an able lawyer. When 
the civil war began he enlisted in the union army as a 
captain, and rose to the rank of brevet major-general. In 
1864 he was elected to congress; in 1868 he became governor 
of Ohio, entered upon a second term in 1870 and a third 
in 1876. The same year he was elected president. 

Mr. Hayes was an extremely able president, and as brave 
and honest as he was able. After his presidency he retired 
to Fremont, Ohio. 

Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, October 4, 1822, and 
died in Fremont, that state, January 17, 1893. 

631. The New Nation.— The year 1877 closed the era of 
reconstruction and opened up another epoch in the nation's 
history. From that year we may say that a new nation has 
been created and new policies adopted. With the north and the 
south once more welded together, and the old questions about 
slavery and state rights shelved, the people have turned with 
astonishing energy to settle other problems. The keynote 
of this movement is found in the word expansion. Expan- 
sion in commerce and expansion in territory — consciously 
or unconsciously — these have been the guiding motives. 

481 



482 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 

Hence it is that legislation has dealt with great com- 
mercial affairs, with tariffs, with financial questions, with 
railroads, with the creation of new states, with the settle- 
ment of Alaska; with foreign questions; with the subject of 
a canal between the Atlantic and the Pacific ; with the secur- 
ing of new territory. The acquisition of this new territory 
is the inevitable climax of the movement. Events beyond 
the control of man made it certain, and similar events have 
determined that the expansion shall be to the south and in 
the extreme east. Hawaii, Porto Rico, and ^the Philippines 
have been added. Will the movement stop here? Most 
Americans would be inclined to answer yes; but only the 
future can determine. 

632. The President's Position. — The new president took 
high ground on all questions which came before him, and 
particularly in regard to civil service and finance, — questions 
which must be settled properly before the future of the 
nation can be assured. On both these, Hayes was opposed by 
a considerable faction in his own party. His "southern 
policy" still further exasperated this faction. The Demo- 
crats meanwhile were his bitter foes, regarding him as a 
usurper in the presidency on account of the manner of his 
election. Consequently his administration was one of great 
difficulty. 

633. Conciliation of the South : Hayes's Southern Policy. — 
Hayes believed that the only hope of healing the wounds 
created by the civil war lay in conciliating the south. States- 
men perceived that this conciliation was necessary; that a 
divided nation could not possibly attain a great destiny. In 
making up his cabinet Hayes held out the "olive branch of 
peace" by appointing as postmaster-general David M. Key, 
who was not only a Democrat but a southerner and an ex-con- 
federate officer. He then consulted a number of southerners, 
and upon receiving from them a promise to uphold the 
national laws in the south, he withdrew the troops from 
South Carolina and Louisiana. As a consequence, for the 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 483 

first time since the war the south was solidly democratic. 
Many Republicans bitterly opposed Hayes for bringing this 
about. 

634. Civil Service Reform. — His efforts on behalf of civil 
service reform were no less unpopular with this class of 
Republicans. In spite of the refusal of congress to vote 
money for the execution of the law, the president bravely 
attempted to bring about a reform in the civil service.. 
He refused to allow senators and representatives to 
select the federal officers in their states, and instructed 
the secretaries and other officials to make appointments 
to office solely for merit. Hayes's opponents were deeply 
offended, and the Republicans in the senate retaliated 
by refusing to consent to some of his nominations, espe- 
cially that to the post of collector in New York. Defeated 
once, the president returned to the charge in 1879. He 
insisted on the removal of the collector and the naval officer 
at the port of New York, alleging that they had used their 
offices 'Ho manage and control political affairs." The 
officials denied the charge, and a heated struggle between 
the president and the senate followed. The president 
finally won. He also removed the postmasters of New York 
and St. Louis, and introduced civil service reform in both 
places. For these and like services to good government 
President Hayes deserves the thanks of all honest citizens. 

635. Resumption of Specie Payment — 1879. — The act 
for resuming payments in coin, passed in 1875, was 
to go into effect January 1, 1879. The law had given 
rise to -much feeling. Popular politicians all through the 
campaign of 1876 denounced the policy, declaring that 
resumption was wrong, since it meant the end of inflation. 
Ceaseless floods of paper money, endless rising and falling 
of prices were the demands of this class. Many Republi- 
cans adopted these notions, and wished to give up the plan 
of resumption. With these Hayes did not agree. Resump- 
tion, he said, was honest ; it was best for our trade, especially 



484 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

our trade with other countries. Inflation, on the other 
hand, would destroy our reputation for honesty abroad and 
would be ruinous to thousands. 

In his policy he was strongly supported by his able secre- 
tary of the treasury, John Sherman of Ohio. In prepara- 
tion for the day of resumption the secretary began to collect 
coin, and by the sale of bonds procured $140,000,000, which 
were to be used in redeeming the greenbacks. Many 
prophesied that the attempt would be a failure ; that when the 
day of resumption came, everyone would be eager to change 
his paper into specie, a panic would follow, and thousands 
would be ruined. Not a word of this came true. On Jan- 
uary 1, 1879, the policy of resumption was successfully carried 
out. The treasury of the United States was open to pay coin 
for the greenbacks of all who came, and scarcely anyone came. 
When people found that they could have coin for paper they 
did not want it. All that anyone wishes to know, in refer- 
ence to specie, is that he can have it when he asks for it. 
From that day the paper money was as good as gold and 
silver. It had not been so before. 

636. The Silver duestion: The Bland- Allison Bill — 
1878. — Even before the paper money problem was set- 
tled, a new financial question came up — the silver 
question. For years silver had been getting less and less 
valuable, until in 1878 a silver dollar contained only about 
ninety cents' worth of silver. Now a new doctrine arose, 
which held that silver money should be made by law equal to 
gold, whether it was actually so or not, and that the United 
States should coin into dollars all silver that was offered to 
it. The law of 1873 making gold the only standard of value 
had made this impossible. If now a law was passed com- 
pelling people to take silver on an equality with gold, all 
debtors would pay their debts in silver, and creditors would 
lose ten cents in every dollar owed to them. As paper had 
driven coin out of circulation, so silver would drive out gold, 
and as it continued to get less valuable, prices would fre- 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 485 

quently go up and down once more, and there would be 
much loss. Hayes said this was a scheme to cheat. If 
people wanted a silver dollar to pass as a dollar, a dollar's 
worth of silver ought to be put into it. 

Congress did not agree with the president. It tried a 
compromise. It would not pass a bill to have all silver 
coined and to be equal to gold in paying debts. But it did 
pass a bill ordering the secretary of the treasury to buy at 
least 2,000,000 ounces of silver every month and make silver 
dollars out of it. This was called the Bland- Allison Bill. 
The president vetoed it, and congress passed it over the 
veto in February, 1878. The coinage of silver being lim- 
ited, and the silver not being payable in all debts, the silver 
dollars became worth as much as gold dollars, and the 
gold remained in the country. 

637. Colorado Admitted— 1876: The Tenth Census— 1880. — 
Colorado was admitted into the union as the thirty-eighth 
state in 1876. Four years later the tenth census of the 
United States was taken, disclosing the fact that the United 
States had a total population of 50,155,783. Included in 
this population were 6,580,793 colored persons, 104,565 
Chinese, 148 Japanese, and 66,407 civilized Indians. Dur- 
ing the ten years closing with 1880, nearly 3,000,000 immi- 
grants arrived in the United States, — about a million of 
whom were from the British Islands. 

638. The Presidential Election of 1880.— Hayes had no 
chance of a renomination, his policy having made him very 
unpopular. Many Kepublicans wished to nominate General 
Grant for a third term. This gave rise to a cry of king- 
ship, and alarmed many people with the idea of a life 
presidency. The third term idea was unpopular, and Grant 
failed to get the nomination. Instead, James A. Garfield 
was named. The Democrats nominated General Winfield 
S. Hancock. Garfield was elected by a vote in the electoral 
college of 214 votes to 155 cast for Hancock. Chester Alan 
Arthur was elected vice-president. 



486 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION 

REPUBLICAN: 1881-1885 

639. James Abram Garfield, twentieth president of the 
United States, was the son of poor parents. His father died 
when he was still an infant. As a boy Garfield worked hard 
for a living, being employed as a mule-driver on a canal. 
He had already shown exceptional brilliancy, learning to read 
at the age of three. Naturally he desired an education, and 
struggled to attain it. He attended Hiram College in Ohio 
and afterwards was graduated at Williams College in Massa- 
chusetts. He then became a professor in Hiram College, and 
later its president. Meanwhile he was admitted to the bar. 
In 1859 he was a senator in the Ohio legislature. AYhen the 
war began he was made lieutenant-colonel, and rose to the 
rank of major-general. He was elected to the United States 
house of representatives in 1863 and remained there until 
1880. In that year he was elected United States senator, 
but before he took his seat he was made president by the 
Republican party. Almost immediately after he entered 
upon his office he was assassinated. 

President Garfield was born at Orange, Ohio, November 
19, 1831, and died at Elberon, New Jersey, September 19, 
1881. 

640. The Blaine and Conkling Political Quarrel. — When 
Garfield became president, he appointed James G. Blaine 
secretary of state, an act which enraged Senator Roscoe 
Conkling of New York, who personally disliked Blaine. 
A struggle followed between the Blaine and Conkling factions 
of the Republican party. The president joined himself 
wholly to the Blaine wing and struck at the New York 
senator by appointing Conkling's enemies in New York to the 
federal offices in that state. In an overwhelming rage 
both the New York senators, Conkling and Thomas C. 
Piatt, resigned their seats in the United States senate. 
They then carried the fight to the New York legislature, 
asking for a reelection to the senate as a blow to the 



FEOM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 487 

president. They expected an easy success, and as a result 
a brilliant victory over the president and Secretary Blaine. 
To their amazement, the New York legislature refused 
to elect them, and the president was left victor of the field. 

641. Assassination of Garfield. — The excitement caused by 
this political quarrel affected the brain of a half-mad and 
disappointed office-seeker, named Charles Jules Guiteau. 
This wretch, on the morning of July 2, shot the president 
as he was in the ticket office of the Baltimore and Ohio 
railroad at Washington. The president was not killed, 
however, and the utmost efforts were made to save his life. 
It was all in vain, and after almost three months of agony, 
the brave and brilliant statesman passed away. The assassin 
was tried and executed. 

642. Chester Alan Arthur, who on the death of Garfield 
became the twenty-first president of the United States, was 
the son of a^Vermont clergyman. He was graduated at 
Union college in the state of New York, and in 1853 began 
the practice of law. In 1871 Grant appointed him col- 
lector of the port of New York, which position he held 
until 1878. In 1880 he was nominated for vice-president by 
the Eepublicans. He became president the 20th of Septem- 
ber, 1881. After his presidency he retired to NewYork City. 

President Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont, October 
5, 1830, and died in New York City, November 18, 1886. 

643. The Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883. — In 
spite of the efforts of President Hayes, much corrup- 
tion still existed in political life. The star route frauds 
in 1881 attracted universal attention to the disgraceful 
fact, and the acrimonious fight over the New York 
offices during Garfield's administration convinced every- 
one that an earnest effort should be made to end this 
wretched state of affairs. In January, 1883, urged forward 
by the voice of the people, congress passed the Pendleton 
Civil Service Act. Under this act, appointments to the civil 



488 HISTORY OF THE UlvTITED STATES 

service are made only after an examination is passed by the 
applicants for the offices. The president also appoints a 
civil service commission to see that the law is properly car- 
ried out. President Arthur supported the law faithfully, 
and his example has been followed by succeeding presidents. 
The result has been excellent, and the principle of civil serv- 
ice reform has been introduced into many states and cities 
as a consequence. Spoils politicians oppose the policy, but 
this is one of the best reasons why every honest citizen 
should support it. 

644. The Australian Ballot. — Another plan making for 
purity in politics is the use of the Australian ballot, by which 
citizens vote secretly for the man of their choice. This secret 
system of voting puts an end to most of the opportunities 
for bribery and intimidation. It is now in use in almost 
every state in the union. 

645. Acts against Immigration. — The United States has 
received vast benefits from the coming to this country of 
intelligent foreigners of good habits. After the civil war, 
however, the character of immigration became objectionable. 
Paupers, criminals, and lunatics came to the United States 
in hordes, and thus many European governments got rid of 
their burdens at our expense, while crime increased in Amer- 
ica. To put an end to this objectionable state of affairs, a 
law was passed in 1882 forbidding paupers, convicts, lunatics, 
and idiots to come to the United States from other coun- 
tries. 

In the same year another law shut out Chinese immigrants 
for ten years. The Chinese came to America first at the 
time of the gold excitement in California. Later large num- 
bers came to assist in building the Pacific railroads. A con- 
stantly increasing stream of Chinese poured into the United 
States. As the Chinese live on almost nothing and work 
for the lowest wages, other laboring men soon found diffi- 
culty in getting work. The result was a movement to drive 
out the Chinese. Chinamen were mobbed, beaten, and 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 489 

killed, and a demand came from California and the west for 
their exclusion from the United States. Hereupon the law 
of 1882, known as the Chinese Exclusion Act, was passed. 
Since then it has been added to several times, and was re- 
enacted in 1892, and again in 1902. 

In 1885 another act forbade capitalists to import laborers 
from foreign countries on a contract or promise to give them 
work after they came. This act is known as the Contract 
Labor Law. Of course, artists, teachers, singers, and such 
classes do not fall under its provisions. 

646. The Presidential Campaign of 1884.— In 1884 James 
G. Blaine of Maine, who had played a prominent part in 
politics as speaker of the house, and as Garfield's secretary 
of state, was nominated for president by the Republicans. 
The Democrats selected Grover Cleveland of New York, 
and took up the cry of reform in government. A strong 
body of independent Republicans declared against Blaine, 
and, through their influence in the election, he lost the 
electoral vote of New York, in which state the independents 
were especially numerous. The majority against Blaine was 
about one thousand votes. Fraud was charged in that state 
and the vote contested in the supreme court of New York. 
Before the case came to trial, Cleveland was inaugurated 
and the excitement subsided. The New York supreme 
court afterwards rendered a verdict which in effect declared 
that the New York electoral vote should have been given to 
Blaine. But wisely the matter was dropped there. The 
country did not wish to be disturbed by such another con- 
test as the threatening Hayes and Tilden contest of 187G. 

CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION" 

DEMOCRATIC: 1W5-1$S9 

647. Grover Cleveland, the twenty-second president of 
the United States, is the son of a Presbyterian clergy- 
man. He received a public school education, and later 
taught in the New York Institution for the Blind. In 1859 



490 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

he became a lawyer; in 1871 he was elected sheriff of Erie 
county, New York, and in 1881 mayor of Buffalo. He 
made so excellent^a record as^reform mayor of that city, that 
the Democrats in 1882 made him governor of New York. 
In 1884 he was elected president; in 1888 the Democrats 
renominated him, but he was defeated by Benjamin Harri- 
son. He then took up the practice of law^in New York City. 
In 1892 he was again elected president. 

Since his retirement Mr. Cleveland has lived in Princeton, 
New Jersey. Here he has delivered lectures at intervals 
before the students of Princeton College on national and 
international affairs. 

Mr. Cleveland was born in Caldwell, New Jersey, March 
18, 1837. 

648. The Return of the Democrats to Power. — Cleveland 
was the first Democratic president since 1861, and both 
parties regarded his election as a revolution. The Demo- 
crats for the most part expected that a clean sweep would 
be made in the offices ; many Republicans vaguely looked for 
the breaking up of the government ; some declared gloomily 
that slavery would be reestablished. All these absurd 
expectations were happily disappointed. 

649. Cleveland and the Spoils System. — The keenest disap- 
pointment, however, was felt by those who had rallied around 
Cleveland to "turn the rascals out," in other words to secure 
government positions for themselves. Cleveland was a 
reformer, supported by reformers, and he set himself like 
granite against the spoilsmen. " Gentlemen," said a 
southern politician sadly, *'I fear there will be some diffi- 
culty about the offices." So there was. The new president 
would not turn out " the rascals" in anything like the 
desired numbers. 

650. Private Pension Bills. — Cleveland also believed that it 
was the part of reform to put an end to what he considered 
excessive pensions. He said men were every year drawing 
millions of money from the government without any just 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 491 

claim whatever; that it was in the interests of the honest 
veterans that the undeserving should not receive pensions. 
The abuses, he thought, were largely due to the passage of 
private pension bills by congress, whereas congress ought to 
leave the decision in such matters to the pension bureau. 
He therefore declared war against private pension bills, and 
vetoed many of them. In 1887 he also vetoed the Dependent 
Pension Bill, which would have given pensions to all poor 
veterans who had served three months in the union armies. 
Cleveland's pension policy met with much opposition at 
the north, where it was felt that nothing is too good for 
all honest and worthy union veterans who had offered 
their services and their lives in the defence of their 
country. 

651. Presidential Succession Bill — 1886. — In 1886 congress 
passed a bill providing for the succession to the presidency, 
in case both the president and the vice-president should die 
or be unable to exercise the office. Under this law, the secre- 
tary of state succeeds the vice-president, then comes the 
secretary of the treasury, the secretary of war, and the other 
cabinet officers in the order of the creation of the depart- 
ments. This arrangement makes it impossible that the 
office of president should ever be vacant. 

652. The Interstate Commerce Act. — The great railroads 
of the United States possess enormous power over the trade 
and commerce of the country. If they combine, they can 
charge what prices they please for carrying freight. Again, 
they may carry one man's goods at a cheaper rate than they 
will carry those of another man, to the ruin of the person 
against whom they discriminate. In many instances the 
railroads had done these things. In 1887 an attempt was 
made to stop such practices by the passage of the Interstate 
Commerce Act. This forbids railroads to make a difference 

•in the terms on which they will carry freight for different 
persons, or to combine to fix rates. The law also creates a 
body called the Interstate Commerce Commission to see 



492 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

that the raih'oads obey its provisions. Though some 
benefit has resulted, the act has been evaded to a consider- 
able extent, and the problem of compelling obedience to 
it still awaits solution. 

663. Fishery duestions. — Most of our foreign difficulties 
have been Avith England, since she has always possessed large 
colonies on this continent. During Cleveland's first ad- 
ministration, serious disputes arose over the question of 
fishery rights. Disagreement came first over the claim of 
Americans to catch fish along the shores of Canada. The 
right to fish there had been given us by the Treaty of 
Washington in 1871. This treaty expired in 1885, and 
trouble immediately arose. Of course American fishermen 
could continue their fishing on the high seas, and the dis- 
pute related to this question: What are the "high seas"? 
America said that any part of the sea three miles from the 
shore was part of the high seas. Great Britain said that 
this principle was not correct when applied to bays, that 
the Americans could not fish in the bays on the Canadian 
coast, no matter how far they were from land. The New 
England fishermen continued to fish inside the bays, and 
as a result, England began to seize American vessels found 
within these waters. For a time it looked as if war was 
certain, but in 1888 the quarrel was compromised. Ameri- 
cans were to secure English licenses if they wished to con- 
tinue fishing within the disputed waters. 

Another fishery dispute was in respect to the taking of 
seals in Bering Sea. The United States claimed that the 
whole of Bering Sea belonged to her, and that therefore 
Englishmen had no right to catch seals anywhere in this sea. 
This claim, so opposed to the demands in regard to the 
bays of Newfoundland, was indignantly rejected by England. 
In 1886, however, the Americans began to seize English 
sealing vessels in Bering Sea. After much debate and a 
great deal of irritation the question was submitted to an 
international court of arbitration, which decided in 1893 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 493 

that America was mistaken in claiming this entire sea as 
her private property. 

654. The Tariff. — During the civil war high tariff rates 
were imposed upon nearly every article imported to the 
United States. When the other war taxes were repealed, 
the tariff was allowed to stand as it was. Thus the nation 
found itself almost unconsciously committed to a high pro- 
tective tariff. The Republicans supported, the Democrats 
opposed this policy. Nevertheless, the issue was not clearly 
drawn. In 1880 the question entered into the campaign, 
but only in a minor degree. In 1883 some reductions were 
made in rates, but they were of no consequence. In 1887, 
however. President Cleveland made the tariff a party issue. 
His message of that year insisted on the lowering of the 
rates, and declared for a tariff for revenue. Though such 
a tariff might give some protection, revenue and not pro- 
tection was to be aimed at. 

665. Campaign of 1888. — The presidential election of 
1888 was fought out on the tariff issue, and Benjamin Har- 
rison of Indiana, was elected over Cleveland, who had been 
renominated by the Democrats. Harrison received 233 
electoral votes, Cleveland 168. Levi P. Morton was elected 
vice-president. 

HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 

REPUBLICAN: 1^9-1893 

656. Benjamin Harrison, the twenty-third president of the 
United States, was a member of a distinguished American 
family. His great-grandfather was one of the signers of 
the Declaration of Independence, and a governor of the 
Northwest Territory ; his grandfather had been president of 
the United States and his father had played a considerable 
part in Ohio politics. Harrison was a graduate of Miami 
university in Ohio. In 1854 he removed to Indianapolis, 
Indiana, and began the practice of the law. In 1862 he 
entered the army as second lieutenant and rose to the rank 



494 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of brigadier-general. In 1880 he was elected United States 
senator, and in 1888 president. In 1892 he was renomi- 
nated, but defeated. 

After his presidency Harrison resumed the practice of 
the law, securing a national reputation as a great lawyer. 
He still interested himself in politics and represented Ven- 
ezuela before the international court of arbitration to settle 
the Venezuela boundary dispute. 

Harrison was born in North Bend, Ohio, August 20, 1833, 
and died in Indianapolis, March 13, 1901. 

657. The McKinley Tariff.— Since the campaign of 1888 
had been fought out over the tariff issue, the Eepublicans 
in 1890 passed the high protective tariff, known as the 
McKinley Act. This was the highest tariff the country had 
yet known. 

658. Reciprocity and South America. — James G. Blaine, 
President Harrison's secretary of state, believed that if our 
commercial expansion was to go on, some means of inducing 
other nations to trade with us must be found. His prin- 
cipal plan was to lower our tariff rates when other nations 
agreed to lower theirs. This was reciprocity. He, there- 
fore, secured the insertion of a clause in the McKinley Bill, 
which gave the president power to lower our tariff for the 
benefit of any nation which would lower its tariff for our 
benefit. The reciprocity policy has not had the success it 
deserves, though the late President McKinley revived the 
policy and in his last public speech at Buffalo made an im- 
passioned appeal for its adoption by the nation. 

A second part of Blaine's trade plans consisted in hold- 
ing congresses of all the American nations to agree 
upon plans for mutual commerce. Several of these so-called 
Pan-American congresses have been held, but the results as 
yet have not been of much importance. 

659. Samoa and the Sandwich Islands.— The United States, 
seeking all possible outlets for the expansion of its commerce 
in the far east, became interested in the Samoan Islands as 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 495 

early as 1878. In that year the government secured an excel- 
lent naval harbor at Pango Pango. The English and Germans, 
just as keen for trade as the Americans, also sought to obtain 
a footing in Samoa. The consequences were, first, troubles 
with the natives, and then quarrels among the three powers 
for the control of the natives. These disputes became par- 
ticularly acute during Harrison's administration. In 1889 
the three nations appointed members to a joint conference to 
settle the status of the islands and the rights of each nation 
in them. It was agreed that there should be a joint pro- 
tectorate. This was absurd, for it virtually left the trouble- 
some situation unchanged. There was more trouble, and in 
1899 the affair was finally settled by dividing the islands 
between Germany and the United States. 

Of more importance was the position of the Sandwich 
islands. The value of these in helping to secure the trade 
of the far east had been perceived as early as 1850. But 
nothing was done. In 1893, a revolution led by Americans, 
broke out in Hawaii. The native queen, Liliuokalani, was 
unceremoniously deposed and a white republic set up. With 
unusual haste the new governors sought to place their coun- 
try under the care of the United States. A treaty of annex- 
ation was quickly drawn up, and sent by President Harrison 
to the senate. Before that body could act Harrison had re- 
tired from office, and his successor withdrew the treaty. 
For the time being the islands were left to their own devices. 

660. Campaign of 1892. — In this year, owing to the 
McKinley act, the tariff was again the predominating issue 
between the parties. Again the candidates were Harrison 
and Cleveland, but this time Cleveland was elected over Har- 
rison by a vote in the electoral college of 277 to 145. Adlai 
E. Stevenson was elected vice-president. 

Cleveland's second administration 

DEMOCRATIC: 1S93-1897 

661. The Panic of 1893 : Sherman Act Repealed. — Before any 
attention could be given to the tariff, a much more pressing 



496 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

problem forced itself upon public notice. The demand that 
silver should be placed on the same footing with gold had 
grown stronger with the passage of time. Yet silver did not 
cease to sink in value, and by 1890 the silver in a dollar was 
worth only a little over half that sum in gold. Neverthe- 
less, in that year, a new law, called the Sherman Act, con- 
tinued the forced coinage of silver and increased the amount 
coined in each month to 4,500,000 ounces. But silver coin 
was not yet receivable in payment of all debts, and the gov- 
ernment would not coin more than 4,500,000 ounces a 
month. As it was, however, silver threatened to drive gold 
out of the country, and thus make it impossible to pay debts 
excepting in silver. In 1893 a terrible financial panic over- 
ran the country, and the opponents of silver coinage 
declared that it was due to the silver law. However, this 
may be, business men were panic-stricken; no one would 
lend money, and creditors tried to force those who owed 
them to pay their debts at once. Now business can not go 
on unless money is daily loaned. Consequently trade ceased, 
firms began to break; laboring men were thrown out of 
work, and extreme suffering resulted. In August, 1893, 
therefore. President Cleveland called a special session of 
congress to repeal the Sherman Act. Driven on by the 
president and the pressure of public opinion congress did so. 
But the panic was not ended. The silver advocates said that 
this proved that silver had nothing to do with it; the 
opponents of silver said that silver had started the panic, 
and that once started a panic could not be stopped immedi- 
ately. 

662. The Wilson Bill— 1894: The Income Tax.— Congress 
now turned its attention to the tariff. The result was 
the Wilson Bill of 1894, which, in spite of the efforts of 
President Cleveland, left many high duties. An income 
tax was also passed in connection with the tariff, but the 
supreme court soon declared the law unconstitutional. 

663. Cleveland and the Monroe Doctrine.— For many 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 497 

years trouble had been brewing between England and the 
little South American state of Venezuela. The cause lay 
in the rival claims of the two countries to gold-producing 
lands in South America. The boundary between British 
Guiana and Venezuela had never been clearly defined, and 
of course both parties claimed all the territory in dispute. 
As Great Britain was the stronger power and would not 
listen to the proposal of arbitration, A^enezuela was sure to 
lose in the end. So she appealed piteously to the United 
States. Cleveland and his secretary of state, Richard 
Olney, agreed that the Monroe doctrine was applicable to 
the case. Consequently in his message of 1895 the president 
insisted that Great Britain should submit the dispute to 
arbitration. The English were astounded and enraged at 
what they considered American impudence. For a few 
short weeks nothing less than war was spoken of on both 
sides of the Atlantic. England, however, was unwilling to 
go so far, and finally consented to arbitration. 

664. New States. — In 1876, Colorado was admitted to the 
union. In November, 1889, the territory of Dakota was cut in 
two and the states of North and South Dakota created, 
while Montana and Washington followed a few days later. 
The next year, 1890, Idaho and Wyoming were admitted, 
and in 1896 Utah became the forty-fifth state. This in- 
crease in the number of states is a remarkable witness to 
the rapid expansion of the United States. 

665. Oklahoma. — Another evidence of the same breathless 
speed of expansion was seen in the settlement of Okla- 
homa. Oklahoma Territory was created in 1890 out of the 
western part of Indian Territory. Settlers immediately 
rushed in ; cities and towns grew up in a few months, and 
to-day the territory has a population of nearly a half mil- 
lion, a much larger number than some of the states can 
boast. The inhabitants have petitioned for admission to 
the union as a state, a petition which must shortly be 
granted. 



498 HISTORY OF THE U]S"ITED STATES 

666. The Presidential Campaign of 1896. — In the presi- 
dential campaign of 1896 the Democrats declared for the 
free coinage of silver at the ratio of "sixteen to one," while 
the Eepublicans declared for a single gold standard. Three 
distinct political parties, the Democrats, the PeojDle's party, 
and the Free Silver Repnblican party, nominated William 
Jennings Bryan of Nebraska as their candidate. The 
Repnblicans nominated William McKinley of Ohio. McKin- 
ley was elected by a vote in the electoral college of 271 to 
176 cast for Mr. Bryan. G. A. Hobart of New Jersey was 
elected vice-i^resident. 

MCKINLEY AND EOOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION" 

REPUBLICAN: ItiDT- 

667. William McKinley, the twenty-fourth president of 
the United States, was educated at Poland Academy, Ohio. 
In 1861 he enlisted as a private in the union army, and rose 
to the rank of brevet-major. In 1867 he began the practice 
of law. In 1877 he was elected as a representative to con- 
gress, and remained there until 1890. He was then elected 
governor of Ohio, which position he held for two terms. In 
1896 he became president of the United States, and was 
reelected in 1900. In September, 1901, he was assassi- 
nated at Buffalo, New York. 

McKinley was born in Niles, Ohio, January 29, 1843, and 
died at Buffalo, New York, September 14, 1901. 

668. The Bingley Tariff: The Gold Law.—Though the 
tariff issue had not played a conspicuous part in the cam- 
paign of 1896, many Eepublicans wished to repeal the Wil- 
son Bill and restore high duties. Consequently, as soon as 
McKinley was made president, he summoned a special ses- 
sion of congress to pass a tariff act. The result was the 
Dingley tariff of 1897. The Republicans also fulfilled their 
pledge to make gold the only metal in Avhich the public debt 
could be paid. A gold law was passed in March, 1900. 

669. Cuban Affairs. — The misgovernment of Spain in 
Cuba gave rise to endless annoyance to the United States, 




wjLLiAM Mckinley 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 499 

and most Americans believed that we ought to force Spain 
out of that island. Jefferson, Monroe, and John Quincy 
Adams all believed that this would be the inevitable out- 
come, and that Cuba would become part of the United 
States. Later statesmen were of the same opinion. In 
1845 the government offered to give Spain $100,000,000 for 
Cuba, but Spain indignantly refused the offer. In 1854, in 
the Ostend Manifesto, our ministers to England, France, and 
Spain declared that we would be justified in the forcible 
seizure of Cuba. In 1873 the Virginius affair wrought the 
nation to a high degree of frenzy and war was with difficulty 
averted. Finally Americans were convinced that the United 
States must interfere by the events arising out of the last 
Cuban revolution, which began in 1894. 

670. The Maine Disaster— Feb. 15, 1898.— In the midst of 
much popular indignation over the sufferings of Cuba, Presi- 
dent McKinley, in January, 1898, sent the battleship Maine 
to Havana to take care of American interests. The Span- 
iards, who were no less irritated by American threats than 
were the Americans by Spanish misrule and cruelty, resented 
this act as insulting to them. At this moment of supreme 
irritation on both sides, the Maine was blown up in Havana 
harbor on February 15. Precisely who was responsible for 
this shocking crime has never been learned, but the Ameri- 
can people were convinced that Spain was guilty, and clam- 
ored for war. SjDanish treachery must now be punished. 

671. The American Ultimatum. — The government was 
now bound to intervene. President McKinley therefore 
sent to Spain a list of terms which must be granted if war 
was to be averted. Spain must abolish the barbarous recon- 
centration camps; grant an armistice to the Cubans, and 
accept peace proposals. 

THE SPAiiflSH-AMERICAN' WAR 

672. War Declared. — Spain was dilatory in assenting to 
these propositions, and the people of the United States 



500 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

were too impatient to snfiPer even the usual diplomatic 
delays. On the 19th of April, therefore, congress declared 
Cuba free and independent, and authorized the president 
to compel Spain to leave the island. This meant war, and 
war immediately began. 

673. The Naval Warfare. — The American Atlantic squad- 
ron was ordered to blockade the Spanish West Indian ports 
at once. The Pacific squadron, under Commodore Dewey, 
at Hong Kong, was instructed to go to the Philippine Islands 
and destroy the Spanish war vessels there. On the 1st of 
May, 1898, in the darkness of the early morning, Dewey 
boldly ran into Manila Bay, scorning Spanish mines and 
Spanish torpedoes. His boldness had its fitting reward. In 
a few hours, without losing a single man, he either captured 
or destroyed every one of the Spanish vessels. He then 
blockaded Manila and waited until troops should be sent to 
capture the city. 

Meanwhile a Spanish squadron, consisting of four cruisers 
and three torpedo boats, had sailed from Spain under the 
command of Admiral Cervera. Strong American fleets, 
under Commodores Sampson and- Schley, were kept on 
the lookout for the Spaniards. Finally Cervera's squadron 
slipped into the harbor of Santiago de Cuba and was 
promptly blockaded there. The American commander had 
an overwhelming force, and it was evident that the Spanish 
squadron was doomed, unless it could manage to steal away. 
The blockade, however, was too effective to permit this, 
and on the 3d of July, in broad daylight, the desperate 
Spanish admiral made a mad dash for freedom. At once 
the American fleet came into action, and with destructive 
energy overwhelmed the flying vessels with a storm of shot 
and shell. In a few hours every one of the fine Spanish 
vessels was a hopeless wreck, over 600 Spanish sailors were 
killed and the rest were made captive. The Americans had 
lost but one man. 

674. The Land Campaigns. — Cervera's entrance into the 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 501 

harbor of Santiago had drawn not only the American fleet 
thither, but the American army as well. On the 2:3d and 
24th of June, under the command of General W. R. Shafter, 
15,000 American soldiers landed near Santiago and advanced 
upon the city. After some skirmishing, a battle was fought 
on the 1st of July at San Juan Hill and El Caney. The 
Americans lost heavily, but were victors in the fight and con- 
tinued their advance upon the despairing city. After the 
destruction of Cervera's squadron the Spanish general lost 
heart and asked for terms. On the 15th of July he capit- 
ulated, and on the 17th the American army entered the 
city. 

Immediately after this event (July 25), General Nelson A. 
Miles entered Porto Rico, and in a campaign of little more 
than two weeks, got almost complete possession of that 
island. 

Meanwhile a third army, under General Wesley Merritt, 
had been sent to Manila, and on the 17th of August, with 
the assistance of Dewey's fleet, took the city. 

675. Peace.— The destruction of Cervera's fleet was a con- 
vincing argument to Spain that she had nothing to hope 
from the war but constant disaster. She sued for peace, and 
prehminary terms were agreed upon on August 12. On the 
10th of December the definitive treaty was signed. Spain 
relinquished all claims to Cuba, and surrendered Porto 
Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands to the United 
States. For these cessions, the United States paid to Spain 
$20,000,000. 

676. Results of the War.— The war ended forever the 
wornout Spanish tyranny in America; it left the United 
States in possession of distant colonies and with a number 
of new and difficult problems to solve. But best of all, and 
worth all that the war had cost in lives and money, was the 
fact that it wiped out the last lingering traces of ill feel- 
ing between north and south, and cemented the "New 
Union" forever. 



502 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

EYEKTS SINCE THE WAR 

677. The Hawaiian Islands Annexed — 1898. — The Hawai- 
ian islands, once almost in the union during Harrison's 
presidency, and then rejected by Cleveland, were still gov- 
erning themselves as a republic. In the midst of the war 
with Spain, the recognition of their value as a naval port 
in the Pacific forced itself upon the country. In July the 
question of their annexation was vigorously taken up, and 
in August congress by joint resolution added them to the 
United States. 

678. The New Policy. — The annexation of Hawaii, Porto 
Eico, and the Philippines opened up new problems. Hith- 
erto the United States had never annexed territory so 
distant, or which might not some day be self-governing and 
enjoy statehood in the union. But it was apparent to 
all, that whatever the fate of Porto Eico and Hawaii, the 
Philippines never could become states of the union. Their 
distance and the nature of their population forbid this. 
Consequently, there was immediate and determined oppo- 
sition to~ taking the islands. To annex them was to begin a 
new policy — a policy of holding colonies which must be 
governed from AYashington. Even now that the islands are 
annexed the question still constantly recurs: What shall 
we do with them? 

679. War in the Philippines. — To add confusion to an 
already confused situation, the Filipinos insisted upon 
independence, declaring that the United States by its basic 
principles was in honor bound to govern only with *'the con- 
sent of the governed." Since the United States would not 
accept this argument, war broke out. In February, 1899, 
under the leadership of Aguinaldo, a daring and crafty 
Filipino, the contest began. The Filipinos were everywhere 
beaten when they took the field. Soon the struggle settled 
down into a guerrilla war ; Aguinaldo was captured ; most 
of the islands were pacified, but the strife still continues. 



FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 503 

680. Ciiina, and the "Open Door." — How intimately the 
United States had become bound to the rest of the world as 
a consequence of expansion was shown in the part we took 
in the Chinese difficulties of 1900. In that year what is 
known as the Boxer revolt attained frightful proportions. 
This movement was directed against foreigners, and espe- 
cially missionaries. The infuriated Boxers murdered hun- 
dreds of the hated foreigners and among them the German 
ambassador. In June the movement culminated in the 
siege of the foreign legations at Pekin. For two months the 
siege continued, while the outside world remained in pro- 
found ignorance of the fate of the besieged. England, Eus- 
sia, Germany, France, the United States, and Japan all sent 
forces to China, and in August, after stubborn fighting and 
much bloodshed, the armies reached Pekin. The legations 
were saved, the Boxers were suppressed and punished, and 
China agreed to pay an enormous sum of money as an 
indemnity. 

Russia meanwhile had seized Manchuria, a large and 
wealthy province of China and was treating it as her own. 
Hereupon the United States, Great Britain, and Japan 
adopted what is known as the policy of the "open door," 
that is the keeping open of China to commerce on equal 
terms to all the world. Russia declared her willingness to 
accede to this policy. 

681. Cuba. — Immediately after the peace with Spain, the 
United States began the work of establishing Cuban inde- 
pendence. The first step was to restore peace and order. 
This task was entrusted to General Leonard Wood, and was 
brilliantly performed. Meanwhile, the Cubans met in con- 
vention and made a constitution much like that of the 
United States. They then held elections, and in the autumn 
of 1901 Tomaso Estrada Palma was chosen as the first 
president of the Cuban republic. On the 20th of May, 
1902, the island was handed over to the new government. 
Its future progress will be watched with intense eagerness. 



504 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The United States is especially interested, both because 
Cuba is so closely bound to this country and because under 
what is known as the Piatt amendment, the United States 
is responsible for the good behavior of Cuba. If revolu- 
tions arise there, we are required to interfere. 

682. The Interoceanic Canal. — Closely allied to the policy 
of commercial and territorial expansion is the project of a 
canal between the Atlantic and Pacific. Such a canal may 
be built across the isthmus of Panama or across Nicaragua, 
and the United States has been intensely interested in the 
subject ever since the addition of the Mexican territory to 
the union in 1848. In 1850 the government made a treaty 
with England known as the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, which 
declared that in case a canal was built, neither England nor 
the United States should "ever obtain, or maintain for 
itself any exclusive control over the said ship-canal." The 
two powers were to join in securing the neutrality of the 
canal, so that vessels of all nations could pass through it 
both in time of peace and in time of war. This treaty, 
satisfactory enough at the time, became less and less so to 
the United States, as the nation grew larger and larger and 
saAV clearly that the canal was more important to her than 
to all the world beside. We could not permit any other 
nation to interfere. Frequent attempts, therefore, were 
made to have the treaty abrogated, or to secure another 
more agreeable to the United States. Finally, in 1901, a 
satisfactory arrangement was reached in the Hay-Pauncefote 
treaty, which virtually leaves the United States free to build 
and hold the canal on what terms she pleases. 

This difficulty settled, there remains the further one of 
the location of the canal. A French company in 1881 had 
started to construct a Panama canal, but had failed to carry 
the project through. It now offers to sell its property to 
the United States. Though there are many advocates for 
a Nicaraguan canal, it is pretty generally admitted that 
the Panama route is the most available, and at present 




THEODORE KOOSEVELT 

President of thk United States 



FROM HAYES TO KOOSEVELT 505 

(1902) negotiations are under way with the French company 
and the governments of the isthmus, which when completed, 
will allow the United States to build and control the canal 
along this route. 

683. Election of 1900. — Naturally the "paramount issue" 
in the presidential campaign of 1000 was that of "Imperial- 
ism." The Republicans advocated the keeping of the 
Philippines, the Democrats declared that they ought to be 
given up. As in 1896 the candidates were William McKin- 
ley and William J. Bryan. Again McKinley was elected, a 
result claimed as a victory for the policy of retaining the 
islands. 

684. Assassination of President McKinley. — In September, 
1901, President McKinley was the guest of the Pan-American 
Exposition at Buffalo. Here on the 6th of September he 
was murderously assaulted by a miserable fanatic, who had 
imbibed anarchistic principles and believed that by- assassin- 
ating the president of the United States he was assisting in 
the spread of such doctrines. Sympathy from high and 
low, rich and poor, in every nation went out to the noble- 
hearted and^kindly man thus struck down. All that^medi- 
cal science could do, was done in the attempt to save the 
precious life, but on the 14th of September the president 
died. 

The wretched murderer was at once tried, found guilty, 
and executed. 

685. Theodore Roosevelt, who on the death of McKinley, 
became the twenty-fifth president of the United States, 
is a member of an old Ncav York family of Dutch 
descent. He was graduated from Harvard university 
in 1880, and the next year became a member of the 
New York legislature, a position which he held for two 
terms. In 1889 he was appointed United States civil service 
commissioner, which position he held until 1805, when he 
became president of the New York board of police commis- 



506 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

sioners. In 1897 lie became first-assistant secretary of the 
navy. When war broke out with Spain he immediately 
volunteered, acting first as lieutenant-colonel, and later as 
colonel of the Rough Riders. After the war he was elected 
governor of New York state. In 1901 he became vice- 
president and, at the death of McKinley, president. 

Roosevelt has Avritten a number of useful historical books, 
the best being his volumes on "The Winning of the West," 
and the "History of the Naval War of 1812." 

Roosevelt was born in New York City, October 27, 1858. 



CHAPTEK XVI 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 

1860-1902 

686. Growth in Nationality. — The civil war marked the 
beginning of a new era in national feeling. Never again 
would a state dare to resist the general government. 
Extreme care for the rights of the individual states was lost 
in considering the welfare of the whole union. The whole 
had become more important than its parts. Never again 
could a state secure what it wanted by threatening to leave 
the union. Sectional jealousy was now destined to dis- 
appear. 

Now that the cause of all the discord between the sections 
had disappeared in the abolition of slavery, the United 
States soon took place among the foremost nations of the 
world. When the sections ceased trying to get the advantage 
of each other, the people advanced rapidly in invention, in 
education, in manufactures, and in all that goes to promote 
general happiness and comfort. 

POPULATION" 

687. Numbers.— The census of 1900 proved that the first 
rush to the new world had passed; that the remaining pub- 
lic lands were not so attractive as those first offered had 
been ; and that nothing had occurred recently in Europe to 
drive people to seek new homes. The United States had 
passed laws to keep out undesirable immigrants, and this also 
helped to reduce the number. During the ten years since the 
last census, the population had increased less than ever 
before. Yet the total of over seventy-six million inhabitants 
formed quite a contrast with the three and a half million who 
adopted the constitution. The people had multiplied almost 

507 



508 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



^ 



nineteen times in one liundred and ten years. Since 1830, 
they had multiplied six times. In population the United 
States is surpassed only by Russia in Europe, by China and 
India in Asia, thus taking fourth rank among the civilized 
nations of the world. 

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1860-1900 



State 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Calit'oniia 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentuclcy 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts... 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York . . 

North Carolina . 
North Dakota . . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania . . . 
Bhode Island.... 
South Carolina . 
South Dakota . . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington. ... 
West Virginia . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



1,828.697 
1,311,564 
1,485,053 

539,700 

908,420 

184.735 

528,542 
2.216,331 

161,772 
4.821,550 
2,516,462 
2,231,853 
1,470,495 
2.147,174 
1,381,625 

694.466 
1.188,044 
2.805,346 
2.420,982 
1.751 ..394 
1,551,270 
3,106.665 

243,.329 

1,066.300 

42.335 

411,588 
1,883,6()9 
7,268,894 
1,893,810 

319.146 
4.157,.545 

413,536 
6,302,115 

428,-556 
1.340,316 

401.570 
2.020,616 
3.048,710 

276.749 

343,641 
1,854,184 

518.103 

958,800 

2,069,042 

92,531 



1890 



1,513,017 

1,128,179 

1,208,130 

412,198 

746.258 

168,493 

391,422 

1,837.353 

84.385 

3,826,351 

2.192.404 

1,911,896 

1.427,096 

1,858,635 

1,118.587 

661,086 

1.042.390 

2.238,943 

2,093,889 

1,301,826 

1,289.600 

2,679,184 

132,159 

1,058.910 

45,761 

376,530 

1,444,933 

5,997,853 

1.617,947 

182,719 

3,672,316 

313,767 

5,2.58.014 

345,506 

1,151,149 

328,808 

1,767.518 

2 235.523 

207.905 

332,422 

1,655,980 

349.390 

762,794 

1,686,880 

60,705 



1,262,505 
802,525 
864.694 
194.327 
622,700 
146,608 
269.493 

1,542,180 



3,077,871 

1,978,301 

1,624,615 

996.096 

1,648,690 

939,946 

648.936 

934,943 

1,783,085 

1.636.937 

780,773 

1,131.597 

2,168,380 



452.402 
62.266 

346,991 
1,131,116 
5.082.871 
1,399.750 



3.198,062 
174,768 

4,282,891 
276,.531 
995,577 



1 ,542,,3.59 
1,. 591, 749 



332.286 
1,512,565 



618,457 
,315,497 



996.992 
484.471 
560.247 
39.864 
537,454 
125.015 
187,748 
1.184,109 



2,539,891 

1,680,637 

1,194.020 

364,399 

1,321,011 

726.915 

626.915 

780,894 

1,457,351 

1,184,059 

439,706 

827,922 

1,721,295 



122,993 

42.491 

318..300 

906.096 

4.382,759 

1,071,361 



2.665.260 
90.923 

3,521.951 
217,353 
705,606 



1.258,520 
818,579 



330,551 
1,225,163 



442.014 

1,054.670 



964,201 
435,450 
379,y94 
34,277 
460,147 
112,216 
140,424 
1,057,286 



1,711,951 

1,-350,428 
674,913 
107,206 

1.155,684 
708,002 
628,279 
687,049 

1,231,066 
749,113 
172,023 
791,305 

1,182,012 



28,841 
6,8-57 
326,073 
672,035 
J,880,73o 
992,622 



2,339,511 
52,465 

2,906,215 
174.620 
703.708 



1,109,801 
604^15 



315,098 
1,596,318 



775,881 



688. Growth of Cities. — The enormous increase in manu- 
factures and commerce has built up cities in a way which in 
Washington's time would not have been .thought possible. 
In his time only three people out of every hundred in the 
United States dwelt in cities. Now thirty-three out of a 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 



509 



hundred, or one-third of all the people, prefer to live in a 
city. Then there was only one city, New York, that had 
over 25,000 inhahitants. Now there are 161 cities with 
more than that number. 



TWENTY- FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN 1900 WITH POPULA- 
TIONS FROM 1860-1900 



City 


1900 


1890 


1880 


1870 


1800 


NewYork.N.Y.* 

Chicago, 111 

Philadelphia, Pa 


3,437,202 
1,698,575 
1,293,697 
575,238 
560.892 
508.957 
381.768 
352,387 
342.782 
325.902 
321.616 
287,104 
285,704 
285.315 
278,718 
246,070 
206.433 
204.731 
202.718 
175.597 
169,164 
163,752 
163,065 
162.608 
133,859 


2,507,414 
1.099,850 
1,046,964 
451.770 
448,477 
434,439 
261,353 
255,664 
298.997 
296.908 
238,617 
242,039 
205,876 
204.468 
230,392 
181,830 
163,003 
161,129 
164.738 
132,146 
105.436 
132,716 
133,156 
133.896 
106,713 


1,911,698 

503,185 

847,170 

350,518 

362.839 

332,313 

160,146 

155,134 

233.959 

255.139 

156,389 

216.090 

116.340 

115,587 

177,624 

136,508 

120.722 

123,758 

46,887 

104,857 

75,056 

55,785 

41,473 

98,366 

35,629 


1,478,103 

298,977 

674,022 

310,864 

250,526 

267,354 

92,829 

117,714 

149,473 

216.239 

86.076 

191.418 

79,577 

71,440 

109.199 

105,059 

82.546 

100,753 

13,066 

68,904 

48,244 

32.260 

20,030 

62,386 

4,759 


1,174,779 
109.260 
565,529 


St. Louis. Mo 


160 773 




177,840 


Baltimore, Md 

Cleveland. O 


212,418 
43,417 


Buffalo, N. Y 


81 129 




56,802 


Cincinnati, O. .. 


161 ,044 
49 217 


Pittsburg, Pa. 


New Orleans, La 


168 675 


Detroit, Mich 


45,619 


Milwaukee, Wis 


45,246 


Washington, D. C 

Newark. N.J 


61,122 
71,941 


Jersey City. N. J 

Louisville. Ky 


29,226 
68,033 
2,564 




50,666 




18,611 


Kansas City, Mo 


4,418 


St. Paul, Minn 


10,401 




48.204 




4,749 







* Estimated for Greater New York district by Director of Census since 1860. 

Some cities have increased more rapidly than others. Chi- 
cago, for instance, situated at the end of a lake that pushes 
trade around it and thus becomes a transfer point for the 
northwest, was not worth counting separately in 1830. Ten 
years later it had five thousand inhabitants and in 1900 
numbered over a million and a half. Another western city, 
Kansas City, increased nearly twenty times in the twenty 
years before 1900, and a southern city, Birmingham, Ala- 
bama, multiplied over twelve times during the same period. 
The enormous increase of factories and the centralization of 
railroads are largely responsible for the growth of cities. 

689. Growth of Territory. — The home possessions of the 
United States changed little between 1860 and 1900. The 
additions came in the shape of colonial territory — Alaska, 



510 HISTORY OF THE UI^ITED STATES 

Hawaii, Porto Rico, Tutiiila, and the Philippines. The 
main body of the national domain stretches from ocean to 
ocean and from the Lakes to the Gulf. It contains over 
three million square miles. This is three and one-half times 
as much land as the republic had when it began in 1783. Or 
if the new colonial territory be counted in, we own more than 
four times as much as we began with. Over all this expanse of 
the continental United States the people are distributed, ex- 
cept in some portions of the Rocky Mountains, where mining 
is not carried on and in the dry regions about them, where 
there is not sufficient rainfall to allow farming. 

690. Public Lands. — Although the United States govern- 
ment has sold millions of acres of its public lands to make 
homes for its inhabitants, it still owns over half a billion 
acres in the western states. This is selling very slowly because 
most of it is mountainous, and also because the mountains 
prevent sufficient rainfall on adjacent parts of it. Por years 
farmers and companies have been digging ditches to convey 
water from the streams to this arid land, but the work is 
costly and only a small part of it has thus far been irrigated. 
The United States government is being asked to undertake 
this work, as a kind of "internal improvement," just as it 
formerly built wagon roads and helped to build canals and 
railroads. So important has irrigation become that the 
president has frequently called the attention of congress to it. 

Montana has the most of this vacant United States land, 
and much of it is irrigable. New Mexico is next, and is 
even more capable of irrigation than Montana. So the num- 
ber of acres ranges down to Nebraska with nine million and 
Kansas with one million acres. The land in these states lies 
largely in the "sub-arid" district, which does not need irri- 
gation so badly as states further west. 

EDUCATIOJ^ 

691. The Public Schools. — Few nations have tried to secure 
the education of all the people as systematically as has the 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 511 

United States. Of all children between the ages of five and 
eighteen it is believed that fully fifteen out of every twenty- 
two attend school a portion of the year. Of these fifteen, 
one represents those who attend private schools, and the 
other fourteen those who attend public schools. Over two 
hundred million dollars are spent every year on the schools. 
The high schools have improved until they now give a better 
education than the colleges afforded a century ago. 

The national government, although it has donated public 
lands to aid the public schools, has allowed each state to 
manage its own school system. As the newer states in the 
west came into existence, they at once established public 
schools, in some respects superior to those of the older states. 
The southern states, also, in recent years have extended their 
school system, voting to its support large amounts of money 
raised by public taxation. 

692. The Colleges. — In 1862 the national government gave 
to each state an amount of public land proportionate to its 
population for the purpose of establishing a college of agri- 
culture and mechanic arts. Some states added this work to 
the state university proper ; others founded a separate agri- 
cultural college. Several independent universities have been 
established by wealthy men and many of the old colleges and 
universities have been given large sums of money by persons 
interested in them. To crown all, a true "university" has 
been endowed by Mr. Andrew Carnegie, to be located at 
Washington City and to be devoted to the most intensive 
scholarship. Mr. Carnegie has also aided hundreds of cities 
and towns in establishing libraries for the people. The gifts 
to education in the United States in recent years have been 
the wonder and admiration of the world. 

Neither the men who founded Harvard and Yale, nor the 
tutors and students who struggled along on a few hundred 
pounds a year could have dreamed of the present time 
when colleges and universities in the United States have 
in some years more than twenty million dollars to spend j 



512 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

when they number over four hundred institutions of learn- 
ing, scattered all through the states aiid territories; and 
when they have more students attending them than there 
were people in the colonies at the time Harvard was founded. 

693. National Expositions. — As a means of education, the 
national government encourages exhibits of American and 
foreign workmanship and everything which illustrates the 
growth of the republic. In two cases, it has patronized 
extensively these exhibitions. The first was held in Piiila- 
delphia, in 1876, to celebrate the one-hundredth anniversary 
of independence. Buildings were erected at a cost of over 
$7,000,000, in which all the civilized nations of the world 
placed exhibits. During the six months it was open, 
9,910,966 people visited the Centennial Exposition. The 
second was held in Chicago, in 1893, in remembrance of 
the four-hundredth year since Columbus discovered America. 
On the banks of Lake Michigan, the "White City" was 
erected at a cost of $30,000,000. Here were placed the 
displays of 05,422 exhibitors. In six months the "World's 
Fair" was visited by 27,529,400 people. Prizes were given 
to encourage art, invention, discovery, and the manufacture 
of everything to improve the condition of the people. 

694. The Newspapers. — It would be a difficult matter for 
Franklin and the editors of his day, who issued their small 
papers once a week with great labor, to imagine the twenty 
thousand newspapers of the present time, with their tele- 
graph wires extending like nerves to all parts of the civilized 
world. How surprised the colonial printer would be, — 
remembering how he placed each sheet of paper separately 
on his type before applying the pressure by hand, — to see a 
great roll of paper placed by a derrick into a press wdiich 
would fill a small room, and then to see the press print, 
fold, and count the papers, — discharging them at the other 
end of the press at the rate of 1,600 a minute. Eeaders of 
colonial days who had to await the arrival of a sailing vessel 
from England with the books they had ordered weeks before 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 513 

could now be amply supplied by the four thousand new books 
written each year by American authors, of which hundreds 
of thousands of copies are printed. 

TRANSPORTATION 

695. Decay of Canals. — The old canals, carrying small 
boats drawn by horses, have been abandoned in many states. 
Some are supported simply to keep down the freight rates of 
the railroads. The only canals constructed in recent times 
have been those large enough to carry steamships from one 
body of water to another. The railroads have also driven 
the river packets almost out of the passenger traffic, and 
have seriously reduced their freight traffic. About the only 
commercial use to which rivers are put at present is for 
floating timber and coal to market. 

696. Increase of Railroads. — On the other hand, the rail- 
roads have increased enormously, four tracks being necessary 
between some cities to accommodate the fref\uent trains. 
In 1860 there were 30,626 miles of railroad in operation in 
the United States. Now there are almost 200,000 miles. 
If they were put end to end they would reach eight times 
around the world. Travel at present on fast trains with the 
sleeping and dining cars is one of the comforts of the modern 
world. What a change from the time when Mrs. John 
Adams lost her way in the woods between Baltimore and the 
new capital, when taking her first trip in a quaint, old-fash- 
ioned carriage from Boston to Washington to become the 
first mistress of the AVhite House! Then it took two weeks 
for the trip; noAV but a few short hours. 

The railroads carry the grain and stock of the farmer to 
market and bring implements, clothing, and such food as he 
cannot raise. These markets are commonly at a point where 
the farm products can be reshipped by water. That is why 
such railroad cities as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Bal- 
'timore, Charleston, St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Fran- 
cisco have arisen. Or, railroads may find a center in a 



614 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

mining region such as Denver or Chattanooga. Even agri- 
culture may make a common point for raih'oacl exchange, 
such as Indianapolis or Omaha. 

Railroads have a tendency to unite and form "trunk 
lines," running a long distance, which makes shipping easier. 
Chicago and St. Louis are half-way points for trunk lines in 
the northern states. On the eastern side, the New York- 
Central and the Lake Shore systems, the Pennsylvania system, 
the Erie, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Grand Trunk, and the 
Lehigh Valley form great through lines to the seahoard. In 
the west, the Santa Fe extends to the Pacific coast, while the 
Burlington, the Milwaukee, the liock Island, and the Chi- 
cago and Northwestern systems stretch away to the Rockies 
and make direct connections with the coast. The Northern 
Pacific railroad is a great trunk line between St. Paul and 
the Pacific coast. In the southern states, the Plant system 
and the Southern railroad system extend long lines between 
prominent points. From Chicago to New Orleans through 
the Mississippi valley runs the Illinois Central line. 

GROWTH OF INDUSTRIES 

697. Invention. — The United States with its great extent 
of territory, its fertile soil, its mineral wealth, and its water 
courses, has offered special attractions to inventors. The 
United States has produced its share of these master minds. 
The name of Whitney stands almost alone with the cotton 
gin, Howe with the sewing machine, McCormick with the 
grain reaper, Pullman with the sleeping car, and Edison 
with the phonograph. Fulton made the steamboat a suc- 
cess, as Morse did the telegraph, and Field the cable. Hoe 
is associated with the printing press, Colt with fire-arms, 
Ericsson with war vessels, Bell with the telephone, Francis 
with the life-boat, and Mergenthaler with the type-setter. 

The patent office at Washington contains models of all the 
important patents. It shows the development and use of 
electricity from Franklin to Edison. There were less than 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 515 

400 patents issued in 1830; there were more than 25,000 in 
1900. The United States has issued nearly as many patents 
as Great Britain, Germany, and France combined. The 
largest number has been for agricultural implements. 

698. Manufactures. — The coal, wood and minerals of the 
United States are widely scattered. This makes possible not 
only manufactories in many places but also the rapid com- 
pletion of work. Some of the states are very fortunate in 
the great variety of their natural products. It is said that 
if a high wall were built entirely around the state of Penn- 
sylvania that she could still clothe, feed, and house her 
people without assistance from the outside world. The 
United States has become known for the rapidity with which 
she completes locomotives, bridges, ships, and other large 
undertakings. Her goods reach every part of the world. 
American trolley cars run in Palestine, and American canned 
vegetables are eaten along the Nile. American shoes outsell 
those of foreign make in both Paris and London. 

699. Agriculture. — The agricultural products of the 
United States now play an important part in feeding the 
people of the old world. Great grain vessels steamed back 
over the routes along which the timid explorers sailed cen- 
turies ago. The explorers did not know that they were 
finding the future granaries of the world. Although only 
one out of every twenty inhabitants of the earth dwells in 
the United States, yet this country produces one out of every 
five bushels of wheat to feed the world. 

In order to bring the very necessary occupation of farming 
to a higher degree of skill, the national government has 
given large sums of money to the different states with which 
agricultural experiment "stations" have been established to 
study the soil, determine what products it is fitted for, how 
to plant and cultivate the crops, and how to defend them 
against injurious insects. Descriptions of these tests and 
experiments made in the stations are printed and distributed 
free to the farmer who asks for them. The government also 



516 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

supports a weather bureau to forecast the kind of weather, 
by means of which the farmer may be warned of frost and 
storms or may prepare for rain. 

POLITICAL PARTIES SIJTCE THE CIVIL WAR 

700. Political Parties from 1868 to 1880. — Since the presi- 
dential election of 1868, there have been eight presidential 
campaigns. In six of these contests the Eepublicans have 
been successful; in two, the Democrats. These two great 
rival parties have in the main adhered to the two distinct 
theories of government advocated by the two leading parties 
which appeared at the time of the organization of the gov- 
ernment — the Democratic-Republican and the Federalist 
parties. Each, however, has somewhat modified its views 
during the course of the political development of the repub- 
lic. Since the war, a large number of political parties have 
appeared, many of which have taken a part in the presi- 
dential campaigns. 

As has been related, in the election of 1872 the Liberal 
Republicans bolted from the regular Republican nominee 
and selected Horace Greeley as their standard bearer. The 
national convention of the Democratic party of that year 
endorsed Greeley's candidacy. The "straight out" Demo- 
crats, however, nominated a candidate of their own. In 
this campaign, the Labor Reform party placed a candidate 
in the field, who stood for the abolition of contract labor in 
prisons, opposed Chinese labor, and asked that a work day 
be limited to eight hours. The Prohibition party asked for 
woman's suffrage, and favored an amendment to the consti- 
tution prohibiting the sale of liquor as a beverage. 

In the contest of 1876, the Greenback, or the Independent 
party, appeared for the first time, with Peter Cooper as its 
standard bearer. It opposed the resumption of specie pay- 
ment, and favored the issue of greenback currency. The 
Prohibition party stood for the principles advocated in the 
previous campaign, while the American Xational, or Anti- 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 517 

Secret Society party, favored the prohibition of the liquor 
traffic and opposed secret societies. 

701. Political Parties from 1880 to 1892. —In the contest 
of 1880, the Kational Greenback party nominated General 
James B. AYeaver of Iowa, and favored the principles advo- 
cated by the Peter Cooper party in 1876. The Prohibition 
party named Xeal Dow of Maine as its standard bearer. 

In the contest of 1884, the Xational Greenback party, or 
People's party, nominated General Benjamin F. Butler of 
Massachusetts as its standard bearer. This party at the 
time was also called the Anti-Monopolist party. They 
favored the greenback currency and opposed monopolies. 
The Prohibition party nominated John P. St. John of 
Kansas. 

In 1888 the Prohibitionists stood for their distinctive prin- 
ciples and nominated Clinton B. Fisk of ^ew Jersey. The 
Union Labor party nominated Alson J. Streetor of Illinois. It 
opposed monopolies, favored the government ownership of 
transportation lines, and declared for the free coinage of sil- 
ver and an income tax. The United Labor party nominated 
Robert H. Cowdry of Illinois. It opposed the placing of a 
tax on any industry or its products, and favored the taxing 
of land only. It also favored government control of railroads 
and telegraphs, and the reduction of hours of labor. The 
x^merican party nominated James L. Curtis of 'New York, 
and stood for the repeal of all naturalization laws, and it 
further asked that no alien nonresident be allowed to hold 
land in America. It also asked for an educational qualifica- 
tion for voters. 

702. Political Parties from 1892 to 1900.— In 1892 the 
Prohibitionists named John Biddle of California; the 
Socialist Labor party, Simon AYing of Massachusetts, and the 
People's party, James B. AV^eaver of Iowa. In this contest, 
the People's party appeared for the first time as a national 
party, receiving twenty-two of the electoral votes for its 
candidate. It stood for the free coinage of silver at the 



518 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ratio of 16 to 1. It asked for an income tax and for the 
ownership of railroads, telegraph, and telephone systems. - 

In the camjoaign of 1896, the Eepnblicans named William 
McKinley, favored a gold standard, and a protective tariff, 
and opposed the free coinage of silver. The Free Silver 
Democrats nominated AVilliam Jennings Bryan of Xebraska, 
favored the free coinage of silver, and opposed tariff for pro- 
tective purposes. The People's, or Populist, party nomi- 
nated William Jennings Bryan as its candidate, and held for 
the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1, and asked 
for a system of direct legislation, known as the "initiative 
and referendum" (which would refer all important legisla- 
tion to the people for rejection or ap^^roval by their votes), 
and for the abolition of the electoral college in the election 
of president. It again stood for government ownership of 
the transportation and the telegraph business of the coun- 
try. The Prohibition party jolaced Joshua Levering of 
Maryland in the field, and stood for its old-time principles. 
The Free Silver Eepiiblican party bolted the regular Repub- 
lican nominee and endorsed the candidacy of William Jen- 
nings Bryan. The National Democratic party, known as the 
Sound Money Democracy, bolted the regular Democratic 
nominee and named John M. Palmer of Illinois. The Free 
Silver Prohibition party botled the regular Prohibition nomi- 
nee, favored the free coinage of silver, and named Charles 
E. Bentley of Nebraska as its standard bearer. The Social- 
ist Labor party placed Charles Matchett of Xew York in 
nomination for the presidency. 

703. Contest of 1900.— In the election of 1900, the Republi- 
cans named McKinley, and stood for the issues they had advo- 
cated four years previously, and favored holding all the 
islands acquired from Spain. The Democrats named 
Bryan, standing for the principles of 1896, and opposed hold- 
ing the acquired islands. The Prohibition party named John 
G. Woolley of Illinois. The People's, or Populist party 
again named Bryan. The Middle of the Road People's 



GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 519 

party named Wharton Barker of Pennsylvania. The Socialist 
Democratic party named Eugene V. Debs of Indiana; the 
Socialist Labor party, Joseph F. Maloney of Massachusetts. 
The Union Reform, or Direct Legislation party named Seth 
H. Ellis of Ohio. 

It will be seen from this statement of the number of 
parties appearing since the war that the tendency of the 
American people has been more and more in the direction of 
independence in voting. However, the Democratic and 
Republican parties have held the contest pretty closely in 
hand, and are to-day the two large parties before the Ameri- 
can people. The only other party for political honors which 
has secured a vote in the electoral college since the civil 
war is the People's party, which secured, as already stated, 
twenty-two votes in the contest of 1892. 

NATIONAL FEELING 

704. The New Unionism. — The way for a future union was 
cleared by the Declaration of Independence; a>fon7i of union 
was created by the constitution ; a real imio7i exists only in 
the hearts of the people. For over a century we have been 
slowly filling out the form of union. The task has caused 
much strife, several compromises, and one war. Only by 
bitter experience have we learned that union is necessary 
for our peace and happiness. Much of this trouble might 
have been avoided if the people had not been so widely scat- 
tered that misunderstandings could easily arise. Moun- 
tains, dense forests, and broad plains frequently separated 
one portion from another. At the present time, distance is 
annihilated by four great agencies which have been highly 
developed in America — the Jocomotive, the newspaper, the 
telegraph, and the telephone. The whole people have become 
so united by business, by friendships, by family relations, by 
sympathy and by national pride in their mutual achieve- 
ments, that a union of hearts has replaced the earlier union 



520 HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 

of form. We no longer say as did our fathers "The United 
States are," but we say "The United States is." 

705. The New American Era. — It is a common saying that 
since the recent war with Spain the United States has entered 
upon a new era; that it has adopted a policy of holding 
colonies; and that it has taken its place among the nations 
of the world. Although this country was never entirely 
separated from the other nations during the century of its 
home development, nevertheless the holding of such scat- 
tered possessions as colonies must give it a share in the world 
councils. It will also be obliged to adjust its home affairs 
to the welfare of its colonies. All this will be the work of 
years. 

How can the United States succeed in the future as it 
has succeeded in the past? Only by holding true to the high 
ideals which prompted the fathers in their work ; only by 
cultivating national honesty and national pride; only by 
realizing that we are the heirs of the ages and that we have 
inherited the evils of the past, which we must cast out, as 
well as the good of the past which we must preserve. Above 
all, we shall prosper and be safe only by each member of the 
republic assuming his full share of the public duties; by 
voting at each election, if that right shall have been granted 
him, for the best candidate; by refusing to sell this precious 
birthright; by paying his just share of the public taxes; by 
accepting office, if he can fill it, whether it pays a salary or 
not; and by always speaking well instead of ill of the great 
republic which God and our fathers have given to us. 



HISTORICAL TABLES 

STATES AND TERRITORIES, SETTLEMENT, ADMISSION, 
POPULATION, AREAS 



Delaware.. 

Penn 

New-Jersey 
Georgia ... 

Conn 

Mass .. . 
Maryland.. 

S. C 

N. H. 

Virginia . . 
New York. 

N. C 

Rhode Is . . 
Vermont.. 
Kentucky. 
Tennessee. 

Ohio 

Louisiana. 
Indiana . . . 

Miss 

Illinois 

Alabama . . 

Maine 

Missouri . . 
Arkansas . 
Michigan . 
Florida . . . 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 
California. 
Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas — 
West Va.. 
Nevada . . . 
Nebraska . 
Colorado.. 
N. Dakota. 
S. Dakota. 
Montana.. 

Wash 

Idaho 

Wyoming. 
Utah 



FIKST SETTLEMENT 



When 



1638 
1682 
166,5 
1733 
1635 
16-30 
16.34 
1670 
1623 
1607 
1613 
1653 
1636 
1724 
1775 
1757 
1788 
1718 
1719 
1699 
1682 
1702 
1623 
1755 
1685 
1701 
1565 
1685 
1833 
1745 
1769 
1819 
1811 
1854 
1764 
1850 
1847 
1859 
1812 
18.59 
1809 
1811 
1842 
1867 
1847 



Where 



Wilmington — 
Philadelphia — 
Elizabethtown. . 

Savannah 

Saybrooke 

Plymouth 

St. Mary's 

Charleston 

Dover 

Jamestown 

New York 

Albemarle 

Providence 

Fort Dummer... 

Boonesboro 

Fort Loudon 

Marietta 

New Orleans — 

Vincennes 

Biloxi 

Kaskaskia 

Mobile Bay 

Bristol... 

St. Genevieve... 
Arkansas Post. . 

Detroit 

St. Augustine. . . 
Matagorda Bay. 

Burlington 

Green Bay 

San Diego 

Fort Snelling... 

Astoria 

Leavenworth . . . 
Upshur County. 

Genoa 

Belle vue 

Denver 

Perabino 

Yankton 

Yellowstone R. . 
Columbia River. 
Coeur d'Alene.... 

Cheyenne 

Salt Lake City. . 



Date 
of Ad- 
mis- 


Pop- 
ulation 
when 


Pop- 
ulation, 


Area in 
Square 


sion 


Admitted 






ri787 


59,096 


184,735 


2,360 


1787 


434,373 


6,302,115 


4,5,215 


1787 


184,139 


1,883,669 


8.175 


1788 


82,548 


2,216,331 


59.475 


1788 


237,946 


908,355 


4,990 


1788 


378,787 


2,805,346 


8,315 


M788 


319,728 


1,190,050 


12,210 


1788 


249,073 


1,340,316 


30,570 


1788 


141,885 


411.588 


9,305 


1788 


747,610 


1,854,184 


42,450 


1788 


340,120 


7,268,012 


49,220 


1789 


393,751 


1,893,810 


52,250 


1790 


68,825 


428,556 


1,250 


1791 


85,425 


343,641 


9,565 


1792 


73,677 


2,147,174 


40,400 


1796 


35,691 


2,020,616 


42,050 


1803 


45,365 


4,157,545 


41,060 


1812 


76,556 


1,381,625 


48,720 


1816 


24,520 


2,516.462 


36,350 


1817 


75,448 


1,551,270 


46,810 


1818 


55,162 


4.821.550 


56,650 


1819 


127,901 


1,828,697 


52,250 


1820 


298,269 


694.466 


33,040 


1821 


66,557 


3,106,665 


69,415 


1836 


30,388 


1,311.-564 


53,850 


1837 


2 12,267 


2,420,982 


58,915 


1845 


54,477 


528.542 


58,680 


1845 


212,592 


3,048,710 


265,780 


1846 


43,112 


2.231.853 


56,025 


1848 


305,391 


2,069,042 


56,040 


1850 


92,597 


1,485.0.53 


158,360 


18.58 


182,023 


1,751,394 


83,365 


1859 


52.465 


41 3,. 536 


96,030 


1861 


107,206 


1,470,495 


82,080 


1863 


442,014 


958,800 


24,780 


1864 


6.857 


42,335 


110,700 


1867 


122,993 


1,068,539 


77.. 510 


1876 


39,864 


539,700 


103,925 


1889 


182.719 


319,146 


70,795 


1889 


328.808 


401,570 


77,650 


1889 


132,159 


243,329 


146.080 


1889 


349,390 


518,103 


69,180 


1890 


81,385 


161,772 


84,800 


1890 


60.705 


92,.n31 


97,890 


1896 


207,905 


276,749 


84,970 



TERRITORIES 



District of Columbia 

New Mexico 

Indian Ter. (limits defined) 

•Arizona 

Alaska 

Oklahoma 

Hawaii 




278,718 


70 


195,310 


122,580 


391,960 


31,400 


122,931 


113,020 


63,441 




398,2-15 


39,o:?o 


1.54,001 


6,449 



Pupils 

Enrolled 

in Public 

Schools, 

1900 



33.174 

1,1,51.880 

315,055 

482,673 

908,355 

474,891 

229,332 

281,891 

65,193 

358,825 

1,209,574 

400,452 

64,537 

65,964 

501,893 

485,354 

829, 160 

196,169 

564,807 

360,177 

958,911 

376,423 

130,918 

719,817 

374,662 

498,665 

108,874 

578,418 

554,992 

445,142 

269,736 

399,2(,7 

89,405 

389,583 

232,343 

6,676 

288,227 

117,555 

77,686 

96,822 

39,430 

97,916 

36.669 

14.512 

73,042 



46,519 
36,735 
23,&58 
16,, 504 
1,681 
99.602 
11,501 



521 



522 



HISTORY OF THE UJ^ITED STATES 




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



523 



STATES AND TERRITORIES, CAPITALS, GOVERNOR, 
LEGISLATURE 



States and Terri- 
tories 



Alabama 

Alaska Territory . . 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Dist. of Columbia.. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Guam Colony 

Hawaii Colony 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Indian Territory . . 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire . . , 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina — 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma Ter . . . . 

Oregon , 

Pennsylvania , 

Philippines Pro . . 
Porto Rico Colony. 
Rhode Island , 



South Carolina 
South Dakota . . 



Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington . . 
West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Capitals 



Montgomery . . 

Sitka 

Phoenix 

Little Rock.. 
Sacramento. . . 

Denver 

Hartford 

Dover 

Washington . . 
Tallahassee. . . 

Atlanta 

Agana 

Honolulu 

Boise City 

Springfield . . . 
Indianapolis . . 
Des Moines . . . 
Tahlequah — 

Topeka 

Frankfort. ... 
Baton Rouge 

Augusta 

Annapolis 

Boston 

Lansing 

St. Paul 

Jackson 

Jefferson City 

Helena 

Lincoln 

Carson City . . 
Concord .... 

Trenton 

Santa Fe 

Albany 

Raleigh 

Bismarck 

ColiTmbus 

Guthrie 

Salem 

Harrisburg . . 

Manila 

San Juan 

Newport and 
Providence 

Columbia 

Pierre. 

Nashville 

Austin 

Salt Lake City 

Montpelier 

Richmond 

Olympia 

Charleston . . . 

Madison 

Cheyenne 



Governor 



Term 



2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
2 years 
2 years 
4 years 



4 years 
2 years 



4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 

1 year 

2 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 

2 years 

3 years 

4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
2 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
4 years 



4 years 

1 year 

2 years 
2 years 
2 years 
2 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 



Salary 



$3,000 
3,000 
2,600 
3,.500 
6.000 
5,000 
4,000 
2,000 



3,500 
3,000 



5,000 
3.000 
6,000 
5,000 
4,100 
1,500 
3,000 
6,500 
5,000 
2.000 
4,500 
8,000 
4,000 
5.000 
3,. 500 
5,0i0 
5,000 
2,500 
4,000 
2.000 
10,000 
2,600 
10,000 
3,000 
3.000 
8,000 
2 600 
1,.500 
10,(10 



8,000 

3,000 
3.000 
2,5U0 
4,000 
4.000 
2,000 
1,500 
5,000 
4.000 
2,700 
5,000 
2,500 



Legislature 
Limit of 
Session 



50 days 

60 days 
60 days 
60 days 
90 days 
None 
None 

60 days 
50 days 



60 days 
None 
60 days 
None 

50 days 
60 days 
60 days 
None 
90 days 
None 
None 
90 days 
None 
70 days 
60 days 
60 days 
60 days 
None 
None 
6') days 
None 
60 days 
60 days 
None 
60 days 
40 days 
None 



None 
40 days 
60 days 
75 days 
60 days 
60 days 
None 
90 days 
90 days 
45 days 
None 
40 daj'S 



524 



HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 



16 



^5 



6i3 > tS 
•o "? lO rZ'^^i 

^ t- — t- — X. i : 

b'^ s"^ W^ ''T 



0) t^ - « 



• I- "^ JO 



K I-. 

Sac 'H » 



-IS P 



rr 'O <l> (B 



>2 



i 



.3 Mic 












X -^ 3 3 



i « 



cu 0) '^ - a 



j3 s! n ij :3 ci 






O J3 



o — 

02 



a; 3 
ip _bc .- = 

5 111 



3 -■— M 



So^ 



J2 C 



-•- c3 t. 



1^ < 



o^5 

O ^ H 



-^ t~ t>. M 35 ■ 



?^fx 






^ Pi ^ 



S 3 



S 3 



S3 



(Uk IT a> oj 

Q:? ^ Q Q 



P3 « 
























i? 


•;,5 


^ 






s 


T 
in 




5 : : 




§ 




t 


















^ 


:i 


'-in 








-7^ 




^ ■ : 




^;. 




o 


fe 


g 


§ 


t~ 


V 


^ 


f? 


Si 

71 a 
*2 


T- 


?2 


'"' 


15 S 


^ 




^4 


r.g?= 


fe 


2 




o 
o: 

K 
Eh 


'i 


g 

2 


1 
o 


o 


o 


3 


i' 


2 


1?: 


a 

00 




s 

2 


1 


1 gllli 


i 


a 

a; 

c 


1 
1 


H 


O 


H 


u 


H 


o 


H 


oo 


M 


o- 


n 


o o 


o 


■n 


P O-^ccOO 


o 


O 





Mass 

Va 

Va 

Va 

Mass 


s 


• : • : : : °* : ::'•••••: : : 

• J 03 4) S3 • • 3 =1 01 — - .3 • • ^ • ,3 . ■ 

^o > hJl2;^CM CHS oo^^M iz; o ^ 



5 S '^ 

•- 2 ^ 

•a 3 « 

oj O - 

S S3 

03 a: C? 

a a 5 

1-5 1-5 Hj 



55 

PQSd 



J^ o 



:i ;= t- 



3 ^3^^n-3-ro2.0 

> * - o 



§? 



^ 1^ ^l^^^ol 3 



< ^^ ^ 



p- 5" ;= 

S.3« ^-^J ?.-i aj-3^!/:>-::>> 

auEsa t^t».-;i3io=o 



1^1 ^5 



r- 00 Oi p ^fjn 



INDEX 



Abolition, societies and leaders, 
328, 829 ; element opposed to 
Mexican war, 337 : 377 ; 423. 

Acadia (a-ka'de-a), map of, lOG ; 
conquered by tlie Englisli. 100, 
10i8 ; removal of the Acadians, 
114. 

Adams. Charles Francis, minister 
to England, 442. 

Adams, John, 150, 103, 100 : peace 
commissioner, 215 ; minister to 
Holland, 220 ; elected vice- 
president, 240 ; elected president, 
255 ; administration of, 250-200 : 
sketch of life, 250 ; death of, 
295. 

Adams, Jolm Quincy, elected pres- 
ident, 292, 293 : administration 
of 293-298; sketch of life, 293- 
294 ; in the house of representa- 
tives, 294 ; nominated for re- 
election, 297 : protest against 
'•Gag' rule," for the right of pe- 
tition, 327, 328. 

Adams, Samuel, 150 : resolutions 
on the Stamp Act, 101, 104 ; in 
connection with Boston Tea 
I'arty, 107. 108 ; king orders ar- 
rest of, 171 ; 175 ; 229. 

Alabama, admitted to the Union, 
290 ; secedes, 380 ; is readmitted, 
408. 

Alabama, confederate cruiser, 407 ; 
sunk by the Kearsarge, 442. 

Alabama claims, 473, 474. 

Alaska, purchased, 470. 

Albany Convention, The, plan of 
union, 112, 221. 

Algonkin (al-gon'kin), tribes, 54; 
friends of the Frencli, enemies 
of English, 55 ; in King Wil- 
liam's war, 107 : assisted Frencli 
in the French and Indian war, 
119. 

Alien and Sedition laws, 258. 

Allen, Ethan, at Ticonderoga, 173. 

Amendments to the constitution, 
230 ; twelfth, 200 : thirteenth, 
402, 403 ; fourteenth, 405, 400 ; 
fifteenth, 471. 

America, discovery and explora- 
tion of, 13-48 : naming of, 32 ; 
first English settlement in, 04 ; 
new era in. 510. 517. 

American Nation, The, forming of, 
from the various race elements, 
129. 

A.mericu9 Vespucius (a-mer'i-cus 
ves-pu'shus), voyages and nar- 
ratives, 32 ; portrait, 41. 



Amherst (am'erst), Baron, Eng- 
lish general, 117. 

Amnesty bill, 477. 

Anderson. Major Robert, com- 
mander of I'oi't Sumter, 382 ; 
surrender of, 399. 

Andre (an'dra). ' John, arrest and 
fate of, 210, 211. 

Andros (an'dros), Edmund, Sir, 
governor of the New England 
colonies, 81 ; 80 ; in New York, 
90, 91. 

Annapolis Trade Convention, The, 
221, 225-220. 

Antietam. battle of, 421, 422. 

Anti-l''ederalists, 230. 

Anti-Masonic party, held first na- 
tional nominating convention, 
315. 

Anti-Nebraska party. 307. 

Antislavery movement, 328, 329, 
301-305, 423. 

Arkansas, admitted to tlie union, 
317; secedes, 400; readmitted, 
408. 

Army of Virginia, created, 420. 

Arnold, Benedict, 173 ; at Quebec, 
170, 177 ; at I^^ort Stanwix, 
194 ; 209 ; at Bhiladelphia, 209, 
210 ; at West I'oint, 210 ; trea- 
son of, 210 ; subsequent career 
of, 211. 

Arthur, Chester Alan, vice-presi- 
dent, 485 ; became president on 
the death of Garfield, 487 ; 
sketch of life, 487. 

Articles of Confederation, 220- 
222 ; weakness of, 222-224. 

Astoria, 205. 

Atlanta, taken by Sherman, 437- 
439. 

Australian ballot, 488. 

Averysboro, battle of, 451. 

Ayllon, de (da il-yon') Vasquez, 
27-28 ; 100. 

Azores (a-zorz'), discovery of, 10; 
line of demarcation, 22. 

Aztecs, The, conquered by Cortez, 
20. 

Bacon, Nathaniel, character of, 

73 : Bacon's rebellion, 73, 74. 
Bahamas (ba-ha'maz), 14, 19, 25. 
Bainbridge, Captain, 208, 280. 
Balboa (bal-bo'a), Vasco Nunez 

(noon'-yeth), discovers Pacific 

Ocean, 25. 
Baltimore, Lord, see Calvert. 
Baltimore, Md., population of, 125, 

301, 388, 509 ; Massachusetts 



525 



520 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



regiment at. 401 ; General B. F. 
Btitler at, 404 ; Lee's second in- 
vasion of north and, 433. 

Bank of North America, estab- 
lished 1781, 210 ; of the United 
States, 240, 280 : overthrow of, 
in Jackson's administration, 311, 
312 ; State banks, "pet banks," 
311-313 ; Tyler vetoes bill to re- 
charter the U. S. bank, 323. 

"Battle above the clouds," 430. 

Battles of 1861, table of, 408; of 
1862, table of, 424 : of 1863. 
table of, 437 ; of 1864, table of, 
447 : of 1865, table of, 453. 

Beauregard (bo're-gard), P. G. T., 
confederate general, 308 ; at 
Bull Run, 404. 

Bemis (be'mis) Heights, 105. 

Bennington, battle of, 103, 194. 

Benton, Thomas II., senator, 311. 

P>entonville, battle of. 451. 

Bering Sea dispute with England, 
492 

Berkeley, Lord, 02. 

Berkeley. Sir William, governor of 
Virginia, 72, 73 : attitude of to- 
ward public schools and print- 
ing presses, 141. 

Berlin decree, 269. 

"Bill of Rights," The, 230. 

Birney, James G., presidential can- 
didate, 320, 333. 

Blainp, James G., candidate for the 
presidency, 489 ; reciprocity pol- 
icy of, 404. 

Blaine and Conkling political quar- 
rel, 486. 

Blair, Francis P., in Missouri, 402. 

Bland-Allison bill, 484. 485. 

"P>lue Laws," of Connecticut, 133. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, Louisiana 
purchased from, 262 ; "decree" 
of, 260, 274 ; double dealing of, 
274, 275. 

Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom' re- 
shar'), 202, 203. 

Border States in civil war, 400, 
401. 

Boston, Mass., settled by Puritans, 
78 ; population in 1700, 125 ; 
massacre at, 165, 166 : Tea Party, 
166-168: Port Bill against, KJS, 
160; effect of Port Bill, in, 169; 
map of, 171 ; evacuated by the 
British, 177, 178; map of har- 
bor of, 178. 

Boston Massacre, 165, 166. 

"Boston News Letter," 144. 

Boston Port Bill, The, 168, 160 : 
effects of, 160. 

Boston Tea Party, 166-168. 

Braddock, Edward, General, de- 
feat of, 112. 

Bradford, William, governor of 
IMymouth colony, INIass., 76. 

Bragg, (xeneral Braxton, invades 
Kentucky, 414 ; at Chickamauga, 
427-420. 

Brandy wine, battle of, 100, 107. 



Brazil, discovered by Cabral, 33. 

Breckinridge, John C, vice-presi- 
dent, 368. 

British, The, plan of attack in 
1777, 102 ; in the south, 206, 
207 ; effect of Yorktown victory 
on, 214 ; army withdraws, 216, 
217. 

Brock, General Sir Isaac, English 
commander, 270. 

Brooks, Preston, attacked Sum- 
ner, 365, 366. 

Brown, John, in Kansas, 363, 365 ; 
raid of, at Harper's Ferry, 374- 
376; death of, 376. 

Brown University, formerly Rhode 
Island College, 143. 

Bryan, William Jennings, presiden- 
tial candidate, 408, 505. 

Buchanan, James, elected presi- 
dent, 368 ; administration of, 
308-384 ; sketch of life of, 308. 
300 ; policy toward the seceded 
states, 380, 381. 

Buell. General, 411, at Perryville, 
414. 

lUiena Vista (bwa'na ves'ta), battle 
of, 330. 

Bull Run. first battle at, 404, 405 ; 
second battle at, 420. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 175, 170: 
map of peninsula, showing, 175 ; 
monument on, 320, 327. 

Burgesses, House of, 70, 71. 

Burgoyne (bur-goin'). General Sir 
John, 102 ; campaign of, 102- 
100: map of campaign, 103; sur- 
render of, 100. 

Burnside, Ambrose E., in command 
of army of the Potoma<', 422 ; 
at Fredericksburg, 422 ; at Knox- 
ville, 430. 431. 

Burr, Aaron, vice-president, 259, 
200 ; duel with Hamilton, 205 : 
conspiracy and trial, 200. 

Biishv Run, battle with Indians at. 
120. 

Butler, Andrew P., 365. 

Butler, Benjamin F., at Baltimore, 
404. 

Cabeza de Vaca (ka-ba'sa da va'- 
ka), Alvar Nunez, 28-20. 

Cabinet, Washington's, 247, 248 : 
departments of. 247 ; Jackson's 
"kitchen cabinet." 310. 

Cabot (kab'-ot). John, discovers 
North America, 41. 

Cabot, Sebastian, portrait, 41 ; dis- 
coveries of, 41. 

Cabral (ka-bral'), Pedro Alvarez, 
33. 

Cabrillo (cah-breel'-Io), Juan Rod- 
riguez, 31. 

Calhoun, John C, in war congress, 
277 ; favors war with England, 
278 ; vice-president, 203, 208 ; 
doctrine of State rights, 314 ; 
theory of "nullification," 314. 
315 ; and the Compromise of 



INDEX 



527 



1850, 351, 352 ; death of, 354 ; 
compared with Clay and Web- 
ster, 354, 355 ; secession, the 
fruit of Calhoun's doctrine, 371). 

California, 31 ; gold discovered in, 
344-346 ; map of trails to, 345. 

Calvert, Cecil, founded Maryland, 
98, 99. 

Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore, 
98. 

Camden, S. C, battle of, 207, 208. 

Canals, The Erie, 295, 296 ; Sus- 
quehanna and I'otomac, 303 ; 
era of, 390, 391 ; interoceanic, 
proposed, 504 ; decay of, 512. 

Cape of Good Hope, 16, 17 ; 27. 

f ape Verd Islands, discovery of, 16 ; 
line of demarcation, 22. 

Capital, The National, selection of 
site, 250, 251. 

Carleton Sir Guy, 214 ; proclaims 
cessation of hostilities, 215 ; 
withdraws British army, 216, 
217. 

Carolinas, The, settlement and early 
history of, 99-102 ; Albemarle 
Colony, 100 ; Carteret Colony, 
Charleston, 100, 101 ; separation 
of, 101 ; map of. 101 ; different 
character of settlers in North 
and South Carolina, 101 ; Indian 
troubles in, 102 ; Huguenots in, 
129 ; religion in, 134 ; South 
Carolina secedes, 379 ; North 
Carolina secedes, 400 ; readmis- 
sion of, 468. 

"Carpet-baggers," 468. 

Carteret (Car'te-ret), Sir George, 
92. 

Cartier (Kar-tya'), Jacques, 34-35. 

Carver, John, first governor of l*ly- 
mouth Colony, Mass., 76. 

Cass, Lewis, Democratic candidate 
for presidency, 347. 

Cavalier, The, costume of, 131. 

Census, estimates in colonies. 124 : 
of 1790, 254 ; of 1800, 259 : of 
1810, 287 ; of 1820, 292 ; of 1830, 
317 ; of 1840, 319 ; of 1850, 355 : 
of 1860, 382; of 1870, 479; of 
1880, 485. 

Cerro Gordo (ser'ro gor'do), battle 
of, 341. 

Cervera, Spanish Admiral. 500, 501. 

Champlain (sham-plan'), Lalie, 37, 
115. 

Champlain, de, Samuel, 37, 90. 

cniancellorsville. battle of, 432, 433. 

Chapultepec (cha-pool'ta-pek), for- 
tress at City of Mexico, 342. 

Charleston, S. C, founded, 100, 
101 ; French and Spanish attack 
upon, 108 ; population of, in 
1790, 125 ; free school opened in, 
141 ; British attack Ft. Moultrie, 
178 ; captured by British, 207 ; 
battle in harbor of, 431 ; evac- 
uated in 1864, 450. 

Charter colonies, 152, 



Charters, Virginia, 65, 67 ; Massa- 
chusetts-Bay Colony, 80, 81 ; 
Connecticut, 86, 87 ; Rhode Isl- 
and, 87. 88 ; Pennsylvania, 97 ; 
Maryland, 98 ; Georgia, 103. 

Cherry Valley, massacre at, 201. 

Chesapeake, fired into by frigate 
Leopard, 270 ; captured by the 
Shannon, 283. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 427-429. 

China and the Boxer revolt in 1900, 
503 ; the "open door," 503. 

Chinese Exclusion Act, 488, 489. 

Chippewa, battle of. 284. 

Churubusco (choo-roo-boos'ko), en- 
gagement at, 342. 

Cibola (se'bo-la), Seven Cities of, 
29. 

Civil Rights Bill and the Four- 
teenth Amendment, 465, 466. 

Civil Service Reform bill, the first, 
475 : in Hayes" administration, 
483 ; Pendleton Act, 487, 488. 

Civil War, 398-453 ; cost of, 455, 
456 ; progress during the, 456, 
457. 

Claiborne (cla'born), rebellion of, 
98, 99. 

Clark, George Rogers, service of 
during the Revolution, 203, 204. 

Clay, Henry, in war congress, 277, 
278 ; advocate of tariff of 1824, 
292 ; presidential candidate, 293, 
310; protested against Jar" sou's 
bank policy, 311 ; candidate for 
presidency, 315 ; leader of Whig 
party, 316 ; 323 ; Whig candidate 
for presidency, 333 : and Compro- 
mise of 1850. 350, 351 ; death of, 
354 ; compared with W^ebster and 
Calhoun, 354, 355. 

Cleveland, Grover, elected presi- 
dent, 489 ; first administration 
of, 489-493 ; sketch of life, 489, 
490 ; and the "Spoils System," 
490 ; vetoes private pension 
bills. 490, 491 ; defeated by Har- 
rison in election of 1888, 493 : 
elected president, 495 ; second 
administration of, 495-498 ; and 
the Monroe Doctrine in Venezu- 
ela, 497. 

Clinton. De Witt, promoter of the 
Erie Canal, 295. 

Clinton, George, vice-president, 272. 

Clinton, Sir Henry, British general, 
178; evacuates Philadelphia, 
199; 200, 204, 207, 210, 212, 
213 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 444. 

Coligny (Ko-leen'-ye), Gaspard, 35. 

Colleges in the colonies, 141-143. 

Colonial leaders, 155, 156. 

Colonies, The, and result of the 
French and Indian war, 119 ; 
development of, 123 ; population 
in, 123-125 ; cities in, 125, 126 ; 
different nationalities in, 126- 
129 ; class distinction in, 130 : 



628 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



dress in, 130, im ; home com- 
forts, food in, 132, 133 : habits, 
laws and penalties, 133, 134 ; re- 
ligion in. 134, 135 : amusements, 
135, 136; mode of travel, 136, 
137 ; occupations, 137, 138 ; 
money used in, 139 ; education 
in. 139-141 : colleges in, 141-143 ; 
books, newspapers and pam- 
phlets in, 143-145 ; literature in, 
145, 146 ; libraries, 147 : slavery 
and indented service in. 147-151 ; 
government of, 151, 152 : gov- 
ernors of, and Lords of Trade, 
152, 153 : I'arliament and, 153 ; 
the postoffice in, 153, 154 ; politi- 
cal parties in, 154, 155 ; the col- 
onists and their leaders. 155, 
156 ; conditions in at close of 
French and Indian war, 158, 159. 
Colorado, admitted to the union, 

485. 
Columbia, S. C, captured by Sher- 
man, 450. 
Columbus, Christopher, caravels, 
13 ; discovery of continent, 14 : 
parentage, 17 ; appeal to courts 
of Europe, 17 ; aided by Queen 
Isabella, 18; Bartholomew, 

brother of. 17 ; first voyage. 18 ; 
effects of discovery, 19 ; second 
voyage, 20 ; third voyage, 20 ; 
sent in chains to Spain, 20 ; 
fourth voyage, 20 ; death, 20. 
Compromises, of the Constitution. 
228. 229 ; of 1820, 290 ; of 1850, 
350-352. 
Concord, skirmish at, 171, 172. 
Confederate States, government of, 
set up, 380 ; condition of in 
1864, 448. 
Confederation, Articles of. 220, 

221. 222. 
Congress, the stamp act. 161, 221 ; 
first Continental, 169, 170, 221 ; 
second Continental, 174, 221. 
245 ; and the army, 217, 218 ; 
the first national, 221, 250 ; 
term of a, 250 ; the war con- 
gress, 277. 
Conkling. Senator Roscoe, quarrel 

with Blaine, 486. 487. 
Connecticut, settlement and early 
history, 82-87 ; written consti- 
tution of. 83 ; charter of, 86 ; 
blue laws of. 133. 
Constitution and Guerriere (gher- 
ri-arr), 280; "Old Ironsides." 
280. 
Constitution of the United States, 
growth of. 221-244 ; compromises 
of. 228. 229 ; before the people 
for adoption, 229, 230 ; amend- 
ments. 230; text of. 230-244. 
Constitutional Convention. The. 
221, 227: men who composed. 
227, 228 ; submitted to congress 
new constitution. 229. 
Continental Congress, see Congress. 



Continental currency, Jts collapse, 
218, 219 ; picture of. 218. 

Contract Labor Law, 489. 

Contreras (kon-tra'-ras), engage- 
ment at, 342. 

Conway Cabal, The, 198. 

Corinth, capture of, 412. 

Cornwallis, Lord, general in the 
British army, 189 ; at the 
Delaware, 190, 191 ; at Charles- 
ton, 207 ; 208, 211, 212 ; fortifies 
Yorktown, 212; surrenders at 
Yorktown, 213. 

Coronado (ko-ro-na-do'), Francisco, 
Vas(iuez, 29. 

Cortereal (kor-ta-ra-al'), Caspar, 
33. 

Coitez. Hernando, conquers the 
Aztecs, 26. 

Cotton gin. and its relation to 
slavery, 254 ; picture of, 254. 

Council for New England. 74. 

Cowpeus, The. battle at, 211. 

"Cradle of Liberty.'" or Faneuil 
Hall, 129. 

Crawford. William II.. 277 ; presi- 
dential candidate, 292. 

Credit Mobilier and other scandals, 
478, 479. 

Crittenden, compromise, 381. 

Crown I'oint, taken by the Eng- 
lish, 115 ; captured by Seth 
Warner, 174. 

Cuba. 28 ; filibustering expedi- 
tion against, 353, 354 ; and the 
Ostend Manifesto. 359, 360 ; and 
the Virginius, 474 ; situation in 
1898; free in 1902. 503. 
Cumberland National road, 206, 

267 ; map of, 266. 
Custer, General George A., massa- 
cre of, 476, 477. 

D.\KOTA. North and South admit- 
ted. 497. 

Dale. Sir Thomas, governor of Vir- 
ginia, 67. 

Dartmouth College, 143. 

Davis. Jefferson, in Black Hawk 
war. 316 ; 355 ; president of 
Confederate States. 380 ; issues 
call for volunteers. 400 ; re- 
moves General Johnston from 
command. 438. 

Decatur. Commodore, in Tripoli- 
tan war, 268 ; in war of 1812, 
280 ; in Algerine war. 287. 

Declaration of Independence, 179- 
185; 221. 

Declaratory Act, 162. 

Deerfield. Mass., Indian massacre 
at. 108. 

De Kalb (de Kalb') Baron, 192, 
208. 

Delaware, settlement of, 97, 98; 
slavery prohibited in the begin- 
ning, 148. 

Delaware, Lord, governor of Vir- 
ginia, 07. 



INDEX 



529 



Democratic party, 298, 317, 320, 
356 ; in election of 1860, 377, 
378; in election of 1S72, 475; 
in election of 1876, 470 ; in elec- 
tion of 1884, 489 ; in election of 
1888, 493 ; in election of 1896, 
498. 

Democratic-Republican party, 230, 
251 ; and war of 1812, 278 ; in 
election of 1816, 287 ; in election 
of 1824, 292. • 

De Soto (da so'-to), Hernando, 30- 
31. 

D'Kstaing (des-tang). Count, with 
French forces at Savannah. 205. 

Dewey. Admirall, at INIanila, 500. 

Dias (de-as), Baitholomeu, dis- 
covers Cape of Good Hope, 16. 

Dickinson, John, 156, "letters of a 
I'ennsylvania farmer," 164 ; in 
constitutional convention, 228. 

Dingley tariff bill, 498. 

D'ix, John A., in Buchanan's cab- 
inet, 381. 

Dorchester Heights, 175. 

Dorr's rebellion, 324, 325. 

Douglas, Stephen A., in the west, 
355 ; and the Kansas-Nebraska 
bill, 361. 362 ; 364 ; condemned 
action of Lecompton convention, 
372 ; debates with Lincoln, 373, 
374 ; presidential candidate, 
378 ; for the maintenance of the 
union, 378. 

Drake, Sir Francis, circumnavi- 
gates the globe, 42. 

Dred Scott decision, 370. 371. 

Dutch, The, claim to stretch of 
Atlantic seaboard. 22. 47 ; dis- 
covery of Hudson, 40 ; summary 
of explorations, 47 ; settlement 
of New Amsterdam. 88, 89 
bought Manhattan Island, 89 
conquered by English, 89, 90 
Indian policy of, 90 : picture of 
Dutch house. 90 ; picture of 
Dutchman and Dutch maiden, 
»1 : in the colonies. 126, 127 ; 
hated the established church of 
England, 134 ; introduced slav- 
ery, 147, 148. 



Early, Jttbal A., raids in the 
Shenandoah valley, defeated by 
Sheridan, 445, 446. 

Education, in New England, 139, 

140 : in the middle colonies, 140, 

141 ; in the southern colonies, 
141 ; in United States from 1789 
to 1829, 304. 305 ; in United 
States from 1830 to 1860, 389, 
390. 

Edwards, Jonathan, 145, president 

of Urinceton, 146. 
El Caney (el ka'na), battle of, 501. 
Electoral Commission, 479, 480. 
Eliot, John, missionary among the 

Indians, 85, 86 ; one of the ed- 



itors of the New England Hymn 
Book, 144. 

Elizabeth, Queen of England, 41- 
42. 

Ellsworth, Colonel E. E., at Alex- 
andria, 404. 

Emancipation of slaves in the 
north, 292. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 423. 

Embargo act, in 1794, 252 ; in 
1807, 271 ; repeal of, 271 : effect 
of repeal of, 273 : of 1812, 277. 

Emigrant aid society, 363. 

p]ndicott, John, 77, 84. 

England, Bartholomew Columbus 
sent to, 17 : ignored line of de- 
marcation, 23 : under the Stu- 
arts, 63 ; religious awakening of 
the 16th century in, 74 ; and re- 
sult of the French and Indian 
war, 118, 119 ; manufactures in 
the colonies prohibited by, 138 ; 
and the slave trade, 147 : colonial 
policy of, 157 : conditions in. at 
close of the "Seven Years' War',' 
157, 158 : principle of taxation 
as used by, 159 : offers all but 
independence, 199 ; acknowl- 
edges independence of the U. S., 
215 : terms of treaty with, 
signed at I'aris, 216 ; Jay's treaty 
with. 252 ; trouble with, in Jef- 
ferson's administration. 268- 
271 ; war of 1812 with, 277-285 ; 
and the Confederate cruisers, 
441, 442 ; treaty of Washington 
with, 473 ; fishery dispute with, 
492. 

English, discoverers and explorers, 
40-46 ; summary of explorations. 
47 ; claim to territory of U. S., 
47 ; treatment of the Indians, 
54 ; map of English possessions 
at beginning of intercolonial 
wars. 104 ; English and French 
colonial policies contrasted, 104, 
105 ; English and French Indian 
policies contrasted, 105 ; in 
Queen Anne's war, 107, 108 : 
claims of. conflicting with claims 
of French, 110 ; in the French 
and Indian war, 110-122; map 
of English possessions at close 
of French and Indian war, 118. 
Indian war, US . 

Era of Good Feeling, 288, 292. 

Ericson, Leif. exploration of, 21. 

Erie Canal, 295, 296 ; map showing, 
295. 

Espejo de (da es-pa'-ho) Antonio, 
32. 

Established Church of England, 
134. 135. 

Eutaw Springs, 212. 

Evacuation Day. 217. 

Everett, Edward, 355. 

Excise Tax. The, 249. 

Expansion. Era of — from Hayes to 
Roosevelt, 481-500. 



5;jo 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Fanetjil (fan'el) IIali., picture of, 
129, 134. 

Faneuil, Peter, gave to Boston 
Faneuil Hall. 120. 

Farragut, David G.. captures New 
Orleans, 413, 414 : enters Mobile 
P,av. 441. 

Federal Hall (N. Y.), 221, 245, 
246. 

Federalist, The, 229. 230. 

Federalist party, 230, 251, 259, 
260 ; and war of 1812, 278 ; 
downfall of, 285. 287. 

Ferdinand and Isabella, aid Colum- 
bus, 18. 

Ferguson, Fatrick, at King's 
Mountain. 208. 

Field. Cyrus W., and the Atlan- 
tic cable, 394. 

Filibustering expeditions, against 
Cuba. 353. 354, 359, 360; 
against Mexico and Central Am- 
erica, 360, 361. 

Fillmore. Millard, and tariff act of 
1842, 323; elected vice-president, 
347 ; succeeds to the presidency, 
348 ; sketch of life. 348. 34i) ; 
nominated for presidency of the 
Know-Nothing party. 349, 368. 

Finances of the Revolution, 217- 
220 : of the government in 1789, 
248 : of the civil war, 455, 456. 

Fishery Question with England, 
settled in 1888, 492. 

Five Nations, The, of the Iroquois, 
55. 

Florida, discovery of. 24, Narvaez's 
expedition to, 28 ; Huguenots 
attempt to found a colony in, 35. 
36 ; Spain gave Florida to P^ng- 
land, 118: divided into east and 
west Florida. 121 ; purchase of, 
289 ; admitted into the union. 
331 ; secedes, 380 ; is readmitted. 
468. 

Foote. Commodore Andrew H., at 
Forts Henry and Donelson, 409, 
410. 

Force bills, 472. 

Fort Donelson, 409, 410. 

Fort Duquesne (du-kan'), built, 
111; map, 113: captured —name 
changed to Fort I'itt, 115. 

Fort Henry, 409. 410. 

Fort Lee. abandoned. 188. 

Fort McHenry, bombardment of, 
284. 

Fort Mimms. massacre at, 281. 

Fort Moult^rie (moo'tre), battle of, 
178. 179. 

Fort Necessity. Ill ; account in 
Franklin's newspaper of battle 
at. 112 ; map. 113. 

Fort Niagara (ne-ag'a-ra), 115. 

Fort Stanwix. besieged, 194 ; flag 
raised for first time over. 194. 

Fort Sumter, 382 ; fall of and the 
effect on north and south, 398- 
400. 



Fort Ticonderoga, 115. 

Fort Washington, captured, 188. 

Fort William Henrv. 115. 

Fortress Monroe, 382. 

"B'orty-niners," The, 344, 345. 

France, refused Columbus' appeal, 
17 ; ignored line of demarcation, 
23 ; made loans to the colonies 
and America. 220 : trouble with 
in Adams' adminstration. 256- 
258 ; trouble with, in Jefferson's 
administration. 268-271. 

Franklin (Tenn.). battle at, 439. 

Franklin, Benjamin, plan for colo- 
nial union, 112 ; the greatest 
name in American literature of 
the 18th century. 145-146 ; in- 
ventions of, 146 ; colonial agent, 
147 ; founded a free library, 
147 ; as deputy postmaster gen- 
eral, 153, 154 ; diplomacy of, 
199 ; peace commissioner, 215 ; 
228, 229. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 422. 

Freedmen. legislation against, in 
south, 464. 

Freedmen's Bureau, 465. 

Free Silver Republican party, 498. 

Free-soil party. 347, 356. 

Fremont, John C, in California, 
340 : Republican nominee for 
presidency, 368. 

French. The. discoverers and ex- 
plorers. 33-40 ; summary of ex- 
plorations, 47 ; claim to terri- 
tory of V. S.. 47 : map of 
French claims. 104 : French and 
English colonial policies con- 
trasted. 104. 105 ; French and 
English Indian policies contrast- 
ed. 105 : in Queen Anne's war. 
107, ]08; chain of forts (map 
of). 109, 110. Ill; and Indian 
war, 110-122 ; in the colonies. 
128, 129 ; alliance, 199 : fleet 
fails at Newport, 201 ; fleet at 
Savannah, 205. 

French. The. at Yorktown. 213. 

French and Indian War, The. 110- 
122. 

Frenchtown. battle of, 281. 

Frobisher (frob'-ish-er). Sir Martin, 
search of a "northwest passage," 
42. 

Frontenac (fron-te-nac). Count, 
106, 107. 

Fugitive Slave law of 1850, 351, 
352. 

Fulton, Robert, and the first steam- 
boat, 267. 

Cr.\DSDEX, purchase, 357. 358. 

Gag rule, 294 ; J. (}. Adams pro- 
tests against, 327, 328 ; rescind- 
ed. 32S. 

Gage. Thomas. British general, 
162, 165, 171, 173, 175. 

Gama (ga'-ma) Vasco da, new 
route to Asia, 17. 



INDEX 



531 



Garfield. James Abram, elected 
president, 485 ; Garfield and Ar- 
thur's administration, 486-489 ; 
assassination of, 487. 
Garrison, William Lloyd, leader of 

antislavery forces, 328. 
Gaspee, The. the burning of, 166. 
Gates. General Horat'o, 195, 198, 

207, 208. 
Geary, John W., territorial govern- 
or of Kansas, 365, 372. 
Genet (zhe-na') M., French minis- 
ter to the U. S., 252, 253. 
George III., King of England. 119, 
120, 129, 158; hires Hessians, 
179 ; overruled by parliament. 
215. 
Georgia, settlement and early his- 
tory of, 102, 103 ; In.dian troubles 
in, 103 : slavery prohibited in 
the beginning. 148 : not repre- 
sented in First Continental Con- 
gress, 169 : secedes, 379 ; is re- 
admitted, 473. 
Germans, The. in the colonies, 127, 
128: hated the Established 
Church of England, 134 ; the 
best farmers. 138. 
Germantown, Pa., settled by Ger- 
mans, 128. 
Gerry, Elbridge, vice-president, 

273 
Gettysburg, battle of, 434-436 ; map 

of, 434. 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, attempts 
to found colony, 43 : death, 43. 
Gold, discovered in California, 344- 
346 ; discovery led to develop- 
ment of western states, 346. 
Gold law of 1900, 498. 
Goodyear, Charles, discovers proc- 
ess of vulcanizing rubber, 393. 
Gorges (gor'jez). Sir Ferdinando, 

81, 82. 
Gosnold, Bartholomew, 44. 
Gourges, de (deh goorg), Domi- 
nic, 36. 
Government, of the colonies, 151- 
156 ; the National government 
established, 245-246. 
Grand Army of the Republic and 
associated organizations, 459, 
460. 
Grand Review at Washington. 458. 
Grant, Ulysses S.. victory of, at 
Forts Henry and Donelson, 409. 
410 ; at Shiloh, 411, 412 ; at 
Corinth, 412 ; 424 : at Vicksburg, 
425-427 : at Chattanooga, 429- 
431 ; plans campaign of 1864, 
437, 442 ; general-in-chief of 
union forces, 442 ; with army 
of the Potomac, 442 ; at the 
Wilderness, 443. 444; at Cold 
Harbor, 444 ; race for Peters- 
burg. 445 ; last campaign, 
451-453 ; Petersburg and Rich- 
mond. 451, 452 ; Appomattox 
Courthouse, 452 ; made supreme 
head of army by congress, 467 ; 



elected president, 470 ; adminis- 
trations of, 470-480 ; sketch of 
life, 470, 471. 

Grant and Greeley campaign of 
1872, 475. 

Grasse, de (deh gras). Count, com- 
mander of French fleet, 213. 

Great Britain, see England. 

Greeley and Grant campaign of 
1872, 475. 

Greea Mountain Boys. 173. 

(Jreene, Nathaniel, 188, 208, 210, 
211 ; recovers the Carolinas and 
Georgia, 211, 212. 

Guadalupe Hidalgo (ga'-da-loop' 
e-dal'go), treaty of, 342. 

Guam (gwam), acquired by treaty 
in 1898. 501. 

Guilford Courthouse, battle at, 212. 

Hale, John P., 356. 

Hale, Xathan. 187, 211. 

Halifax (hal'e-faks). Nova Scotia, 
114; Howe sails to, 178; Howe 
leaves to attack New York, 185. 

Halleck, Henry W., 412 ; general- 
in-chief of union armies, 412. 

Hamilton. Alexander. 155, 228, 
229 ; secretary of the treasury, 

247, 248 ; financial policy of, 

248, 249 ; leader of the Federal- 
ists, 251. 

Hampton, General Wade, 280. 

Hancock, John, 156 ; owner of the 
sloop Liberty. 165 ; first signer 
of the Declaration, 165 ; king 
orders arrest of, 171 ; 175 ; 181. 

Hancock, Winfield S., presidential 
candidate. 485. 

Harper's Ferry, John Brown's raid 
at, 374-376 ; map of Ferry and 
vicinity, 375. 

Harrison, Benjamin, elected presi- 
dent, 493 ; administration of, 
493-495 ; sketch of life, 493, 
494 ; defeated by Cleveland, 495. 

Harrison, William Henry, governor 
of Indiana Territory, 276 ; bat- 
tle of Tippecanoe, 276 ; battle of 
the Thames, 281 ; candidate for 
presidency, 317 ; elected presi- 
dent, 320 ; sketch of life, 321 : 
death, 321. 

Hartford Convention, 285. 

Harvard College, 142, 256. 

Harvard, John. 142. 

Haverhill (ha'ver-il), Mass., In- 
dian massacre at, 108. 

Hawaiian (ha-wi'yan) Islands, pro- 
posed annexation of, 495 ; an- 
nexation of, 1898, 502. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., elected pres- 
ident, 479, 480 ; administration 
of, 481, 485 ; sketch of life, 481 ; 
"southern policy" of, 482. 

Ilayne, Robert Y., debate with 
Webster. 314. 

Helper, Hinton R., "Impending 
Crisis in the South ; How to 
Meet It," 376, 377. 



532 



HISTORY OF THE TXITED STATES 



Henry. Patrick, IHG: protests 
against the Starup Act. 103 : 
aids Colonel Clark. 204 ; 22V). 

Henry, Trince. the Navigator, 10. 

Hessians (hess'yans). King George 
III. hires, 179 ; captured at Tren- 
ton, 190 ; at Bennington, 193, 

Holland, made loan to U. S., 220. 

Holv Alliance, 291. 

Hood, General John B.. command- 
er of Confederate forces at At- 
lanta. 438, 430 ; defeated by 
Thomas, in Tennessee. 439, 440. 

Hooker, Joseph E., in peninsular 
campaign, 417 : at Antietam. 
421, 422 ; in command of army 
of the Potomac, 422 : at Chatta- 
nooga. 429 ; at Chancellorsville. 
432 : resigned command of the 
Army of the Potomac^ 434. 

Hooker, Thomas. 82. 

Howe, Admiral Richard, joins Sir 
William Howe in attack on New- 
York, 185 ; at Newport. 201. 

Howe, Elias, inventor of the sew- 
ing machine. 393. 

Howe, Sir William, British gener- 
al, 17.'>. 176 ; commander-in-chief 
of British, 176 ; evacuates Bos 
ton. 177, 178 ; sends Clinton ^to 
subdue southern colonies, 178, 
179 • the Howes offer peace, 186 : 
plan to cut off New England. 
186. 192 : at Brandy wine. 19(;. 
197 ; at Philadelphia, in winter 
of 1777. 197. ^ ^^ 

Hudson. Henry, discovery of, 40. 

Huguenots (hu'ge-not). The, at 
tempt at colonization. 35. 36 ; 
in South Carolina. 101 ; in Geor- 
gia, 103 ; in the colonies, charac- 
ter of. 128. 129. 

Hull, General William, surrender 
of. at Detroit. 279. 

Hutchinson. Anne, banished from 
Mass., 79 ; buys and settles Ports- 
mouth and Newport, 87. 

Idaho, admitted to the union, 497. 

Illinois, admitted to the union, 289. 

Immigration Acts. 488, 489. 

Incas, overthrow of, in Peru, 26. 

Income Tax, 496. 

Indentured servants, 69, 150, 151 : 
trade in. 151. 

Independence, declared, 179-181 : 
text of Declaration of. 181-184 ; 
signers of the Declaration of, 
185. 

Independence Hall, 181 ; picture of, 
180. 

Independent Treasury Act or Sub- 
Treasury Bill, 319 ; repealed, 323. 

Indiana, admitted to the union. 
287. 

Indians, The, why so called, 52 ; 
treatment by Spanish, 53 : by 
French and Dutch. 53 : by Eng- 
lish, 03, 54 ; whole continent 



peopled by, 54 : tribal groups of, 
54. 55, 56 ; oldest tribe — mound 
builders, 56 : appearance of, and 
characteristics, 57-60 : govern- 
ment expenditure for, 61 ; reserv- 
ations for, 61 ; schools, 61 ; gov- 
ernment policy toward, 62 : Al- 
lotment Act. 62 ; policy of Dutch 
toward. 90 ; trouble witli. in the 
Carol inas, 102 ; trouble with, in 
Georgia, 103 : atrocities of, in 
King William's war, 107 ; in 
Queen Anne's war, 108 ; in 
French and Indian war, 119, 
120 : trouble with, in Northwest 
Territory. 253 : on western bor- 
der in 1811. 276; trouble with 
the Seminoles in Florida, 288, 
289 : trouble with the Sioux, 
476, 477. 

Inflation bill, 476. 

Intercolonial Wars, The, 104-122. 

Interoceanic Canal, Nicaraguan 
route, Panama route. 504. 

Interstate Commerce Act. 491. 492. 

Intolerable Acts. The. 168. 169. 

Iowa, admitted to the union. 346. 

Iroquois (ir-o-kwoi'), enmity to- 
ward French, 37 ; confederacy, 
known as the Five Nations, 55 ; 
character, 55 ; friends of the 
English. 55 ; joined by Tuscaro- 
ras. 102 : in King William's war. 
107; assisted the English in the 
French and Indian war. 119. 

Irving. Washington. "Knickerbock- 
er's History of New York," 127. 

J.\cKSON. Andrew, defeats Indians, 
282 : at New Orleans. 284. 285 ; 
in Seminole war. 289 ; presiden- 
tial candidate, 293 : elected pres- 
ident. 298 ; administration of, 
309-317 : sketch of life of, 305), 

310 : and the Civil Service. 310. 

311 ; warfare upon the itJ. S. 
bank, 311, 312 ; "specie circu- 
lar" of. 313. 314; and nullifica- 
tion, 315. 

Jackson. Thomas J. ("Stonewall"), 
in Shenandoah Valley, 418 ; at 
Chancellorsville. 432. 

Jamaica (ja-ma-ka), discovered, 
20. 

Jamestown, Va., settlement of, 65 ; 
map of. 65. 

Java, frigate, engagement with the 
Constitution. 280. 

Jay, John, descendant of Hugue- 
nots. 129: 156: peace commis- 
sioner, 215: one of the authors 
of "The Federalist," 229, 230 ; 
chief justice, 250 : negotiates 
treaty "with England, 252. 

JefFerson, Thomas. 156: wrote the 
Declaration of Independence, 
181 ; secretary of state. 247. 
248 : leader of Democratic-Re- 
publicans, 251 : elected vice-pres- 
ident. 255 ; administration of, 



INDEX 



633 



260-272; sketch of life of. 2G(). 
261 : death of. 295. 

Jesuit, missionaries. 38. 

Johnson, Andrew, sketch of life. 
461, 462 : administration of. 461- 
470 : policy of reconstruction, 
463 ; impeachment of, 460. 

Jolinson, Richard M., vice presi- 
dent. 317. 

Jolinston. Albert S., general in reg- 
ular army, 403. 

Jolinston, Joseph E., general in reg- 
ular army. 403 ; at Bull Run. 
404 ; at Fair Oaks. 417 : at Jack- 
son, Miss., 426 : in command of 
Confederate forces in Georgia, 
438 ; in Carolina. 450, 4.'jl : sur- 
renders to Sherman, 453. 

Joliet, 38. 

Jcnes, Paul, and the Bon Homme 
Richard, 202, 203. 

Judiciary, The, established, 240. 
250. 

Kansas, struggle for. 362-365. 371- 
373 : map of. 363 ; admitted to 
the union. 382. 

Kansas-Nebraska bill, 361. 362. 

Kearny. Stephen W.. 338 : cam- 
paign of, in Mexican war. 340. 

Kentucky, admitted. 253 ; resolu- 
tions. 259 : invasion of. in 1862, 
414. 

Key, Francis Scott. 284. 

King George's War, 108. 109. 

King Philip's War. 85. 86 ; checked 
missionary work among the In- 
dians. 86. 

King. Rufus, 228, 272; presiden- 
tial candidate. 287. 

King, William R.. elected vice-pres- 
ident. 356. 

King William's War, 106, 107. 

King's College, now Columbia Uni- 
versity. 143. 

King's Mountain, the yeomanry at. 
208. 

Knickerbockers, 127. 

Know-Nothing or American I'arty. 
366. 367. 

Knox. General Henry. 216. 217 ; 
secretary of war. 247, 248. 

Kosciusko (kos-si-us'ko). Thaddeus. 
a Polish patriot, 192. 

Ku-Klux Klan, 472. 

Labrador, 33. 

Lafayette ( la-fa-yet'). Marquis de, 
191, 192. 210 : outgenerals Corn- 
wallis, saves Virginia, 212 ; vis- 
its America. 294. 295 : laid cor- 
ner-stone of Bunker Hill monu- 
ment. 326. 

Lake Erie, battle of, 281. 

Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers, 
monument marks the spot of. 76. 

Lane. James XL, in Kansas. 363, 
365. 

La Salle (la sal'). Robert de. ex- 
plorations of, 39. 



Laudonniere de (deh lo-do-ne-er'), 
Rene, governor of Huguenot col- 
ony. 36. 

Laurens. .Henry, peace commission- 
er, 215. 

Lawrence, Captain James, in com- 
mand of the Chesapeake, 282, 
283. 

Lecompton convention and consti- 
tution, 372. 

Lee. General Charles, second to 
Washington in command. 188 ; 
treasonable conduct of. 188, 189 : 
advice to British, 196 : at battle 
of Monmouth, 200 ; court-mar- 
tialed. 200. 

Lee, Henry, at Paulus Hook, 205 ; 
209. 

Lee, Richard Henry, 162 ; resolu- 
tion of, 180. 

Lee. Robert E.. general in regular 
army, 403 : in peninsular cam- 
paign, 417, 419 : at Antietam. 
421 : at Chancellorsville, 432 : 
second invasion of the North, 
433-436: in battle of the Wil- 
derness and at Petersburg. 443- 
445 ; retreats from Petersburg. 
451, 452 ; surrenders at Appo- 
mattox Courthouse. 452. 

Leisler. Jacob, governor of New 
York. 91. 

Leon, see Ponce. 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, The, 
263 : map of route, 263. 

Lexington, battle of. 171-173. 

Liberty, The sJoop, seizure of, 165, 
166. 

Lincoln. Abraham, 100 ; in Black 
Hawk war, 316 : "spot resolu- 
tion" of. 337 : 355 : debates with 
Douglas. 373. 374 : Springfield 
speech. 374 : nominated for presi- 
dency. 378 : election of. 379 ; and 
the Civil war. 395 ; sketch of life, 
395-396 ; speech on leaving 
Springfield. 396 : policy toward 
slavery. 397 : first inaugural, 
397. 398 : issues call for volun- 
teers. 399. 402. 403 : proclaims 
blockade of southern ports. 400 ; 
proclaims freedom to the slaves. 
423 ; re-elected president. 449 ; 
second inaugural address of, 
449. 450 : assassination of. 453, 
454 ; policy of reconstruction, 
463. 

Lincoln, Benjamin, at Savannah, 
205 : at Charleston, 207. 

Line of demarcation. 22. 

Livingston. Robert R.. 246 : minis- 
ter to France. 262. 

Locke, John, 100. 

London Company, The, limits. 45 ; 
map of grant to. 45 ; Jamestown 
colon.v. 46. 

Longfellow. Henry W., 114. 

Long Island, battle of. 187. 

Lopez (lo'pes). General Narcisso, 
expedition against Cuba, 353. 



534 



HISTORY OF THE U:N^ITED STATES 



Lords of Trade. 152, 153. 

Louisburg. capture of, 109 ; map, 
lO'J : returned to French, 109 ; 
second capture of, 114. 

Louisiana, purchase of. 2G1. 262 ; 
district of, 203 : admitted to the 
union. 287 : secedes, 380 ; is re- 
admitted, 408. 

Lovejoy, Elijah P., l^illed by a 
mob, 328. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of. 284. 

Lyon, Nathaniel, in Missouri, 402. 

MacDonough, Commodore, on 
Lake Erie. 284. 

Macon Bill. 274. 

Madeira (ma-de' ra) Islands, dis- 
covery of, 16. 

Madison, James, in constitutional 
convention, 228 ; joint author of 
The Federalist, 229 : secretary of 
state, 261 ; elected president, 
272 : administration of. 272-287 ; 
sketch of life, 272, 273. 

Magellan (ma-jel' an) Fernando da, 
discoveries of, 27 : first to cir- 
cumnavigate the globe. 27. 

^Magellan, Straits of. discovery of, 
27. 

Maine, settlement of. 81, 82: part 
of Massachusetts. 82 : admitted 
to the union, 290. 

Maine Disaster, The. 499. 

Manila, battle of, 501. 

Marion, Francis, 208, 209. 

Marquette. 38. 

Marshall, John, chief justice. 259. 

Maishall. John W., discovered gold 
in California, 344. 

Martin Koszta (Kozh' ta) Affair, 
358. 

Maryland, settlement and early his- 
tory of, 98, 99 ; religion in, 134 : 
l)roducts of, 138 ; established 
free schools, 141 : invasion of, 
in 1862. 421. 422. 

Mason, James M. and the Trent af- 
fair, 407, 408. 

Mason, Captain John, leader of 
Connecticut settlers in Pequot 
War, 84. 

Mason, John, founded New Hamp- 
shire, 81, 82. 

Mason and Dixon's Line, 96, 149. 

Massachusetts, the Plymouth Col- 
ony, settlement and early history, 
74-77 ; Bay Colony, settlement 
and early history. 77-81 ; became 
royal province. 81 : 85 : Hugue- 
nots in. 129 : public school sys- 
tem founded in. 139. 140. 

Mather (math'-er). Cotton. 80; 
one of the founders of Ameri- 
can literature. 145. 

Mather, Increase, 81 ; one of the 
founders of American literature : 
president of Harvard, 145. 

Mayflower, The. 75. 76. 

McClellan, George B., and cam- 



paign in West Virginia. 401, 
402 : succeeds Scott as general- 
in-chief, 406 : peninsular cam- 
paign of, 416 ; in "seven days' 
tight" before Richmond, and ef- 
fect of failure, 418-420 : in 
Maryland with Army of the I'o- 
tomac. 421, 422 ; removed from 
command. 422 ; candidate for 
presidency, 449. 

McCormick, Cyrus H., inventor of 
grain reaper, 393. 

McDowell, General Irwin. and 
Army of the I'otomac at Bull 
Run, 404. 

McKinley, William, author of Mc- 
Kinlev bill, 494 ; elected presi- 
dent. ' 498 : sketch of life, 498: 
administration of, 498-506 : ulti- 
matum of. to Spain, 499 : re-elec- 
tion of, 505 ; assassination of, 
505. 

Meade, General George G., at Get- 
tysburg. 434-436. 

"Memorial Day," 459. 

Menendez (ma-nen'-deth), Pedro, 
31, 36. 

Merrimac, in Hampton Roads. 415, 
416. 

Merritt. General Wesley, at battle 
of Manila, 501. 

Mexican War. 336-342. 

Mexico, conquest of, 25 : war with. 
336-342 : U. S. paid $10,000,000 
to for the Mesilla valley, 357, 
358 ; and the Monroe Doctrine, 
469, 470. 

Michigan, admitted to the union, 
317. 

Middle Colonies, education m, 140, 
141. 

Milan decree. 269, 275. 

Miles, General Nelson A., conquers 
Porto Rico, 501. 

Military rule in the south in John- 
son's administration, 468 : con- 
tinued under Grant, 473 : ended 
by withdrawal of troops, 477. 

Minnesota, admitted to the union, 
382. 

Mint, the United States, estab- 
lished. 249. 

Missionarv Ridge, 429; battle of. 
430. 4.31. 

Mississippi, admitted to the union, 
2S9. 290 : secedes. 380 ; is read- 
mitted. 473. 

^Mississippi River, discovery of. 30- 
31 : La Salle's exploration of. 
39 ; opening of upper Mississippi, 
in 1862. 412. 

ISIissouri, admitted to the union, 
290 : border state in civil war, 
400, 401 ; saved to the union, 
402. 

Missouri Compromise. 290, 370, 
371. 

Mobile P.av, entered by Farragut, 
441. 



INDEX 



535 



Mobilian family of Indians, 55. 

Moluccas (mo-luk-kas), 27. 

Monitor and Merrimac, 415. 416. 

Monmouth, battle of. 199. 200. 

Monroe Doctrine, 291, 354 ; and 
Mexico, 409, 470. 

Monroe, James, envoy to France, 
262 ; elected president, 287 ; ad- 
ministrations of, 288-293 ; sketch 
of life of, 288. 

Montana, admitted to the union, 
497. 

Montcalm (mont-kam). General, 
the French general at Quebec, 
115-117. 

Monterey, battle of, 339. 

Montezuma, emperor of ancient 
Mexico, 26. 

Montgomery, General Richard, at 
Quebec. 176, 177. 

Monticello, Jefferson's estate. 261 ; 
picture of, 261 ; "The Sage of 
Monticello," 261. 

Monts, de (deh mon'), Sieur, 37. 

Morgan, Daniel, defeats Tarleton, 
211 ; Cornwallis pursues, 211. 

Mormons, 325. 326. 

Morris. Robert, superintendent of 
finance, 219. 220, 228. 

Morristown, Washington withdraws 
to, 191. 

Morse, Samuel F. B., and the tele- 
graph, 331, 332. 

Moultrie (moo'tre), Colonel Will- 
iam, 178. 179. 

Mound builders in North America, 
56. 57. 

Mount Vernon, home of Washing- 
ton, 217, 246. 

Murfreesboro, battle of, 414. 



Napoleon Bonaparte, see Bona- 
parte. 

Narvaez. de (da nav-va'eth), Pam- 
filo, 28. 

Nashville, battle of. 439, 440. 

National Republican' partv. 297, 
310. 315; formed Whig party, 
315. 

Navigation Acts, 72, 73, 121, 122, 
159, 160. 

Nebraska, admitted to the union, 
469. 

Nevada, admitted to the union, 
457. 

New England, Council for, 74. 

New England, The United Colonies 
of. 84, 85 ; clergy of. 134 : ship- 
building in, 138 ; education in. 
139, 140. 

New England Kitchen, picture of. 
132. 

Newfoundland, attempts to found 
colonv in. 43. 

New Hampshire, settled. 81, 82. 

New Jersey, settlement and early 
history, 92, 93. 

New Orleans, British attack upon, 



284, 285 ; captured by Farragut, 

1862, 413, 414. 
New Orleans, 118. 
Newport, R. I., 87 ; French fleet 

fails at, 201. 
Newspapers in the Colonies, 143- 

145. 
New Sweden, or Delaware, 97, 98, 

127. 
New York, settlement and early 

history, 88-92 ; map of, 89 ; pop- 
ulation in 1790. 125 ; Huguenots 

in. 129 : established Church of 

England in, 134. 135. 
Nina (nen'ya), one of Columbus' 

vessels. 1.3. 
Nominating conventions, 293, 308 ; 

national, .315. 
Nonimportation act. 271 ; repealed, 

271. 
Nonintercourse act, 271. 272. 
Norsemen. The, discovery of. 20, 21. 
North and South, relative strength 

of. 382, 383. 
North America, physical features 

of. 49 : structural map of, 50. 
Northwest Territory. 226 ; Indian 

troubles in, 253. 
Nullification doctrine. 314 ; act, 
315 ; Jackson's proclamation, .315. 



Oglethorpe (o'gl-thorpe), James, 

founder of Georgia, 102. 103. 
Ohio, Company, 110; admitted to 

the union, 265. 
Oklahoma territory, growth of, 497. 
"Old Ironsides." 280. 
Old South Church, picture of, 167 ; 

168. 
Orders in council. 269. 274. 275. 
Ordinance of 1787. 226. 227. 304. 
Oregon, admitted to the union. 382. 
Oregon country, map of, 104. 264. 

265 ; territory organized, 346. 
Orleans, territory of. 263. 
Ostend manifesto. 359, 360. 
Otis, James. 156, 163. 



Pacific Ocean, discovery of. 25. 

Pakenham (pak-en-am). Sir Ed- 
ward, British general, 284. 285. 

Palma. Tomaso Estrada (to-ma-so 
es-tra-da pal-ma), first president 
of the Cuban republic, 503. 

Palo Alto (pa-lo al-to), battle of, 
336. 

Palos (pa-los), Columbus set sail 
from. 13. 

Pan-American congresses, 494. 

Panic, financial, of 1837. 318, 319 ; 
of 1873. 476 : of 1893, 495, 496. 

Paper money, during the Revolu- 
tion, 218. 219 ; in Jackson's time, 
"rag money." 312-314. 

Parliament and the colonies. 153. 

Patroon system. 91 ; led to anti- 
rent difficulties, 92 : "patroon 
war," antirent diflaculties, 325. 



536 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Paulus Hook, 205. 

Pea Ridge, battle of, 409. 

Peace convention, 381. 

Pemberton, John C, confederate 
general, 425, 426. 

Penn, William, character of. 94 ; 
and his "holy experiment," 94 : 
founded Philadelphia, 95 : Indian 
policy of, 96 : manner of locating 
boundaries, 96 ; liberal charter 
granted to, 97 : gives a grant to 
a colony from Wales, 126 ; Dutch 
pamphlet of, 128. 

Pennsylvania, settlement and early 
historv, 93-97 ; Germans in, 128 ; 
Scotch-Irish in. 129. 

Pennsylvania, University of, Benja- 
min Franklin founder .of, 143. 

People's party in election of 1896, 
498. 

Pequot war, 83. 84. 

Perry, Commodore Oliver H., in 
battle of Lake Erie. 281. 

Perry. Mattliew C. expedition of, 
to'japan. 358, 359. 

I'etersburg, intrenched by Lee, 445. 

Philadelphia, founded, 95 ; popula- 
tion in 1790, 125 : First Conti- 
nental Congress met in, 169 ; 
map of, and vicinity. 196 ; Howe 
entered. 197 ; evacuated by Clin- 
ton, 199. 

Philip, King, son of Massasoit, 85 ; 
war with, 85, 86 : death. 86. 

Philippine (fil'ip-in) Islands, dis- 
covery of, 26 : seized by England, 
117: returned to Spain, 118: se- 
cured by treaty from Spain, 500 ; 
acquired by treaty in 1898. 501 ; 
war in, 502. 

Phillips. Wendell, advocate ofanti- 
slaverv cause, 329 : address at 
Faneuil Hall, 329. 

Phipps. William, Sir, 106. 

Pickens, Andrew, 209. 

Pierce, Franklin, elected president, 
356 : administration of. 356-368 : 
sketch of life of, 356, 357 ; policy 
toward Kansas. 364, 365. 

Pilgrims. The. why so called, 75 ; 
object of coming to America. 75 ; 
voyage in the INIayflower and the 
compact, 75, 76 : landed at Plym- 
outh, 76 ; relations with the In- 
dians, 77. 

Pinckney. Charles C. in constitu- 
tional convention. 228 ; commis- 
sioner to France. 257 : candidate 
for vice-president. 259 ; presiden- 
tial candidate. 272. 

Pinckney. Thomas, in constitutional 
convention. 228. 

Pinta (pen'ta), one of Columbus' 
vessels, 13. 

Pitcairn, .John. Major. 172. 

Pitt. William, policy of, in French 
and Indian war, 114. 115, 120. 

Pizzarro. conquest of Peru. 26. 

Plains of Abraham, 116. 



Plymouth Company, The, map of 
grant to, 45 : limits, 46 : attempt 
at colonization, 46 ; reorganized 
as "Council for New England," 
74. 

I'lymouth, Mass., settled 1620, 76 ; 
map of, 78 : 85. 

I'lymouth Rock. 76. 

Pocahontas (po-ka-hon'-tas), res- 
cues John Smith, 66 ; marries 
John Rolfe, 66. 

Polk. James K., elected president, 
333 : administration of, 333-347 ; 
sketch of life of, 333, 334. 

Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on), 
discovers Florida, 24-25 ; govern- 
or of Porto Rico, 25. 

Pontiac (pon'ti-ac), conspiracy of, 
119. 120. 

Pope Alexander VI, 23. 

Pope. General John, captures New 
Madrid and Island Number Ten. 
412 : in command of Army of 
Virginia. 420 : in second battle 
of Bull Run, 420. 

Pope Nicholas V, grant to Portu- 
guese. 16. 

Port Hudson, surrendered. 427. 

I'ort Royal. Nova Scotia, 38 : taken 
by the English, 106, 107, 108. 

Port Royal, South Carolina, 35, 
100. 

Porter, Admiral David D.. with 
fleet at Vicksburg. 425, 426. 

Porto Rico (por'to re'ko), discov- 
ered. 20 ; conquest of. by Span- 
ish. 24 : conquest of. by General 
IMiles. 501 : acquired by treaty, 
1898, 501. 

Portsmouth. R. I.. 87. 

Portugal. 16. 17, 22. 

Portuguese, early discoveries of. 
16: grant to, by Pope Nicholas 
V. 16 : discoverers and explorers, 
32, 33 ; summary of explorations, 
46. 

Postofflce. The. under the manage- 
ment of Benj. Franklin, 153. 154. 

Post-rider, 154 : picture of, 154. 

Prescott, William, at Bunker Hill, 
175. 

Prescott, William H.. historian, 26. 

President and Little Belt. 277. 

Presidential succession bill, 491. 

I'rinceton. battle of. 190. 191. 

I'rinceton T^niversity. formerly the 
College of New Jersey, 143. 

Pring. Martin, 44. 

I'roclamation Line. The. 121. 168. 

Pro))rietary colonies. 152. 

Protestants, every sect of. repre- 
sented in America, named, 135. 

Pulaski (pu-las'kee). Count. 192. 

Puritans, The, why so called, 74 ; 
settlement at Salem. 77-81 : in- 
tolerance of. 79. 88 : costume of. 
131: hated the Established 
Church of lOngland. 134. 

Putnam, Israel, 187. 188. 



INDEX 



537 



Quakers, persecuted in Massachu- 
setts. 79, 80 ; in New Jersey, 92, 
93 ; in Pennsylvania, 93-97 ; be- 
lief of. 93. 94 : established public 
school system. 141. 

Quartering Act. The. 1G8. 

Quebec, founded, 37 ; first English 
attack on. 1(H> ; second attack on, 
108 ; taken by the English, 115- 
117; map of. 116: province of, 
121 ; hated the Established 
Church of England. 134 ; Act, 
168 ; American attack upon, 176, 
177. 

Quebec Act, 168. 215. 

Queen Anne's War, 107, 108. 

Quincy. Josiah. Jr.. 106. 

Quivera (ke-ve'-ra), 29-30. 

Railboads, early. 296, 297 ; in- 
crease of, 391, 512, 513. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, attempts at 
colonization, 43, 44 : death, 44. 

Randolph, Edmund, in constitution- 
al convention, 228 ; attorney- 
generaJ, 248. 

Reciprocity, in the McKinley tar- 
iff bill, 494. 

Reconstruction, period of, 461- 
480 : problems of. 462 : Lincoln's 
policy of, 463 ; Johnson's policy 
of, 463 ; policy of congress, 464, 
465 ; influenced by election of 
1866, 466 ; I'resident Johnson's 
powers limited by congress, 466, 
467 ; measures of, completed by 
congress, 467 : plan of, carried 
out, 467, 468 : states readmitted 
under, 460 ; new state govern- 
ments, 468, 469 ; end of congres- 
sional, 472, 473. 

Reeder, Andrew H., first territorial 
governor of Kansas. 363, 364. 

Regulating Act. The. 168. 

Religion, in the colonies, 134, 135. 

Republic, The, growth of, 1789- 
1829, 299-308 : development of 
territory in. 299 ; population, 
table of. by states, 299. 300 ; 
growth of cities, table showing 
relative rank. 301 ; manner of 
living in, 301. 302 ; religion in, 
30'2 : mode of travel in, 303 ; 
public schools and colleges in, 
304 ; literature in, 305 : occupa- 
tions in, 305, 306 ; the army and 
the navy of, 306, 307 ; growth 
of popular government in, 307, 
308. Growth of, 1830-60, 385-395 : 
close of an era, 385 ; territorial 
growth, 385 : population, table 
of, by states, 386-388 ; growth of 
cities, table showing relative 
size, 388 ; schools and colleges in, 
389 ; newspapers, 389 ; literature, 
389, 390 ; canal transportation 
in, 390, 391 ; increase of rail- 
roads in. 391 : national feeling 
in, 392 ; sectional feeling in, 392. 
393 ; inventions and discoveries 



in, 393, 394. Growth of, 1860- 
1902, 507-517 ; population, table 
of, by states, 507-508 ; growth of 
cities, table of, 508, 509 ; growth 
of territory. 509. 510 ; public 
lands of, 510 ; public schools and 
colleges, 510-512 ; national expo- 
sitions in, 512 ; transportation, 
512, 513 ; newspapers, 514 ; 
growth of industries, 514-516 ; 
the new unionism, 516 ; the new 
American era in, 516, 517. 

Republican party, rise of, 366-368 ; 
in campaign of 1860, 377-379 ; 
in campaign of 1868, 470 ; in 
campaign of 1872, 475 ; in cam- 
paign of 1876. 479 ; in cam- 
paign of 1880, 485 ; in campaign 
of 1884, 489 ; in campaign of 
1888, 493 ; in election of 1896, 
498. 

Resaca de La. Palma (ra-sa'ka da 
la pal'ma), battle of, 336. 

Resumption Act. passed, 476 ; goes 
into effect. 483, 484. 

Revere (re-veer'), I'aul, descendant 
of Huguenots, 129. 

Revolution, American, The, condi- 
tions, acts and events leading to. 
157-170 : battles of and events 
in, 171-215 : treaty closing, 215, 
216 ; finances of, 217-220. 

Rhode Island, settlement and early 
history of, 87, 88 ; government 
of. 88. 

Ribaut (re-bo'), Jean. 35. 100. 

Richmond. Va., confederate capital, 
404 ; "seven days' fight" before, 
418. 419. 

Robinson. Charles. 363 ; territorial 
governor of Kansas. 364, 365. 

Rochambeau (ro-sham-bo'), Jean, 
Count de. commander of French 
forces in America. 213. 

Rolfe. John, one of the early set- 
tlers of Virginia, marries Poca- 
hontas, 66. 

Roosevelt (ro'ze-velt) , Theodore, 
vice-president, succeeds tO' the 
presidency, 505. 506. 

Rosecrans. William S.. at Murfrees- 
boro. 414 ; at Chattanooga, 427 : 
at Chickamauga, 427. 429. 

Rotation in office. 261 : in Jack- 
son's administration. 310, 311. 

Royal colonies. 152. 

Rutger's or Queen's College, 143. 

Rutledge. John, 228. 

Ryswick (riz'-wik), HollaDd, treaty 
at, 107. 

Saint Augustine (sant a'-gus- 
ten). 31, 103, lOS. 

Saint Johns River, 35, 36. 

Saint Lawrence, River and Gulf 
of, 34-35. 

St. Leger (sant-lej'er), P>arry, 
British ofl5cer, 192 ; in the Mo- 
hawk valley, 194. 

Salem, Mass., settlement and early 



538 



HISTORY OP THE UXITED STATES 



history of, 77-81 ; character of 
settlers, 77 : map of, 78 ; differ- 
ence between settlers of, and the 
settlers of Virginia, 78 ; govern- 
ment of. 78, 80, 81 ; religious 
differences, 79 ; witchcraft, 80 : 
charter revoked and new ctiarter 
granted. 80-81. 

Samoa, 494, 495. 

Sampson, Commodore, at Santiago, 
500. 

Sandwich Islands, proposed annex- 
ation of Hawaii, 49.5. 

Sanitary and Christian Commis- 
sions, 456, 457. 

San Juan (san hoo-an'), battle of, 
501. 

San Juan de Ulloa (san ho-an' da 
o-Io'a), fort at harbor of Vera 
Cruz. 341. 

San Miguel (san me-gel'), 28, 100. 

San Salvador (san sal-va-dor'), 
Columbus landed on, 19. 

Santa Anna, Mexican general, 339, 
341. 

Santa Fe, founded, 32. 

Santa Maria (san'-ta ma-re'-a), Co- 
lumbus' flagship, 13. 

Santiago de Cuba ( san-te-a'go da 
ku'ba), battle of, 500, 501. 

Santo Domingo (san'-to do-min'- 
go), discovered, 19; colony 
founded, 20. 

Saratoga, battles of, 195, 196. 

Savannah, capture by British in 
1778. 201. 202: attempt to re- 
take in 1779, 205. 

Schley, Commodore, at Santiago, 
500. 

School, The public, in Massachu- 
setts, 139, 140. 

Schuyler (ski'ler). General Philip, 
193, 195. 

Scotch-Irish, The, in the colonies, 
129 : hated the Established 
Church of England. 134 ; believ- 
ers in education. 141. 

Scott. General Winfield. in war of 
1812, 284, 315; in Mexican war, 
338. 341. 342 ; presidential can- 
didate, 356 ; lieutenant-general of 
army, 403 ; succeeded by McClel- 
lan, 406. 

Secession of southern states, 379, 
380. 400. 

Seminole War. 288, 289. 

Separatist, defined, 75. 

Serapis. 202, 203. 

Seven Years' War. The, 120. 

Seward. William II., on compromise 
of 1850, 351. 352; and his "high- 
er law" doctrine, 352, 355 ; at- 
tempt on life of, 455. 

Shafter. General W. It., commander 
of land forces in Spanish-Ameri- 
can war, 501. 

Shannon, British frigate, captures 
Chesapeake. 283. 

Shannon, Wilson, territorial gover- 
nor of Kansas, 364. 



Shay's Rebellion. 224, 225. 

Shenandoah ( shen-an-do'a). Valley, 
Scotch-Irish settlers in, 129. 

Sheridan, General I'hilip, in the 
Shenandoah valley, 445, 446. 

Sherman Act, and repeal of, 4J5, 
496. 

Sherman. John, secretary of rhe 
treasury, 484 ; author of stiver 
coinage act of 1890. 496. 

Sherman, Roger, 156, 228. 

Sherman, William T., at batfi'i of 
Shiloh, 411 : at Vicksburg, 425 ; 
at Chattanooga, 429, 430 ; cam- 
paign of, against Atlanta, 437- 
439 ; march from Atlanta to the 
sea, 440 : march north. 450, 451 ; 
Johnson surrenders to. 453. 

Shiloh. haitle of. 411. 112. 

Silver, demonetization of, 476. 

Sioux (soo). tribe of Indians, 56. 

Slavery, introduction of, 69, 147 ; 
in the colonies, 147. 148 ; senti- 
ment against in the colonies, 148 ; 
number of slaves in the colonies, 
149 ; slave laws in the colonies, 
149, 150 : prohibited in north- 
west territory, 227 : gradual 
abolition of, in the north. 292 : 
petitions in congress referring to 
294, 327, 328 ; societies for aboli- 
tion of, 328 : 334 : "Wilmot Pro- 
viso." prohibiting, 343, 344 ; for- 
bidden in Oregon territory, 346 : 
extension of, in acquired terri- 
tory, 349, 350 : compromise of 
1850, 350, 352: Kansas-Nebraska 
bill. 361, 362 : 369 : supreme 
court decision in favor of, 370, 
371, 374-379: effect on the south. 
383 : "cornerstone" of the con- 
federacy, 407 : abolished by 
emancipation, 423. 

Slidell, John, envoy to Mexico 
(1845), 335: and the Trent af- 
fair, 407, 408. 

Smith, Captain John, rescued by 
Pocahontas, 66 : explores and 
maps coast of New England. 67. 

Sons of Libert.v. 161, 162, 169. 

Southern colonies, education in, 
141. 

Spain, 13. 15, 17, 20, 22, 25, 26, 
27, 36, 291. 

Spanish-American War, naval op- 
erations in, 500 : land cam- 
paigns of, 500, 501 : treaty of 
peace, 501 : results of. 501. 

Spanish Armada (ar-ma'-da), 42, 
44. 

Spanish, motives for discoveries, 
23, 24 : discoverers and ex- 
plorers. 23-32 : summary of ex- 
plorations. 46 : claim to terri- 
tory of r. S.. 47 : map of 
claims. 104; annoyance to Geor- 
gians, 103; in Queen Anne's 
War, 108 ; possessions at close 
of French and Indian war, 118. 



INDEX 



539 



Specie circular, 313, 314. 

Spinning wheel, picture of a, 138. 

Spoils system. The, 261 : in Jack- 
son's administration, 310, 311 : 
in Cleveland's first administra- 
tion, 490. 

Spottsylvania Courthouse, battle 
of, 443, 444. 

Squatter sovereignty, 3G1, 3G2. 

Stamp Act. IGl, repeal of, 102. 

Standish, Miles, 77. 

Stanton, Edwin M., secretary of 
the treasury, in Buchanan's cab- 
inet, 381 ; secretary of war in 
Lincoln's cabinet, 454 ; dismissed 
by President Johnson and ap- 
peals to House, 469. 

Star of the West, fired upon, 382. 

Star-Spangled Banner, by Francis 
Scott Key, 284. 

Stark, John, at Bennington, 193, 
194. 

Stars and Stripes first raised, 194 ; 
history of, 194. 195. 

State rights, 224, 314. 

States, The. adopt new constitu- 
tions, 221, 222. 

Steamboats, invention of, 267, in 
general use. 296. 

Stephens, Alexander II., 355 : vice- 
president of Confederate states, 
380. 

Stephenson, George, inventor of 
locomotive, 297. 

Stephenson. Major B. F.. organized 
first post of the G. A. R., 459. 

Steuben (stuben). Baron. 192. 

Stevens. Thaddeus and reconstruc- 
tion, 464. 

Stony Point, captured by Wayne, 
204, 205. 

Stowe, jMi's. Harriet Beecher ; "Un- 
cle Tom's Cabin," 376. 

Stuarts, House of, England under, 
64. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, governor of New 
Netherlands, 90. 

Sullivan, General, in battle of Long 
Island, 187 : at Newport, 201. 

Sumner. Charles, 355 ; and the 
"crime against Kansas." 362 ; 
assaulted by Brooks in U. S. sen- 
ate, 365, 366 ; and reconstruc- 
tion. 464. 

Sumter, Thomas, 209. 

Swedes, The, settled Delaware, 98, 
127. 

Taney (taw'ni). Roger B., opinion 
in Dred Scott case, 370, 371. 

Tariff of 1789, 249 ; of 1816, 286 ; 
of 1824, 292 ; of 1828, 297 : of 
1832, 314 ; of 1833, 314 : of 1842, 
323 : of 1846, 343 ; of 1861, 456 ; 
of 1890, 494 ; of 1897, 498. 

Tarleton, Sir Bannastre (ban'as-ter 
tarl'ton), 207. 211. 

Taylor. Zachary, in war with the 
Seminoles, 316 ; in Mexican war, 



335, 338-340; elected president, 
347 ; sketch of life, 347, 348 ; 
death, 348 ; policy as to exten- 
sion of slavery, 349, 350. 

Telegraph, invention of, 331, 332. 

Tennessee, admitted, 253 ; secedes, 
400 ; is readmitted, 467. 

Tenure of Office Act, 467. 

Texas, a disturbing element in na- 
tional politics, 329, 330; annexa- 
tion and admission to the union 
of. 330, 331 ; dispute over bound- 
ary of. 334, 335 ; map of Texas, 
330 ; of disputed territory, 334 ; 
secession of, 380 ; is readmitted, 
473. 

Thames, battle of the river, 281. 

Thomas. General George H., at 
Chickamauga, 429 ; at Missionary 
Ridge. 430, 431. 

Ticonderoga (ti-kon der-o'ga), 115, 
captured by Ethan Allen, 173. 

Tilden, Samuel J., presidential can- 
didate. 479. 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 276. 

Toleration Act, 99. 

Tompkins. Daniel D., vice presi- 
dent, 287. 

Tory or Loyalist party in the col- 
onies, 154, 155. 

Townshend Acts, The, 163, 164. 

Transportation Act. The, 168. 

Treaty, I'enn's. with the Indians, 
96 ; at Ryswick, 107 ; of 
Utrecht, 108 ; Aix-la-Chapelle, 
109; of Paris (1763), 117; with 
Great Britain (at Paris, 1783), 
215. 216 ; with Algiers. 251 ; with 
Spain. 252 ; Jay's, 252 ; with Tri- 
poli, 268 ; of Ghent, 285 ; with 
Algiers, 287 ; Webster-Ashbur- 
ton. 324 ; Guadalupe Hidalgo, 
with Mexico, 342 ; Oregon, 343 ; 
Clayton-Bulwer. 353 ; with Jap- 
an. 359 ; of Washington, 473 ; 
with Spain, 1898. 501 ; Clayton- 
Bulwer. with England. 504 ; Hay- 
I'auncefote, with England, 504. 

Trent affair, 407, 408. 

Trenton, battle of. 190. 191. 

Tripolitan war, 267, 268. 

"Tweed Ring," The. 479. 

Tyler, John, elected vice-president, 

320 ; succeeds to the presidency, 

321 ; sketch of life. 322 ; admin- 
istration of, 322-333 : member of 
I'eace Convention. 322 ; member 
of Confederate congress , 322. 

"Uncle Tom's Cabin/' 376. 

"Underground railroad," 352, 353. 

Union Pacific Railroad, 457, 471, 
478. 

United Colonies of New England, 
The, 84. 85. 221. 

T'nited States. The, physical fea- 
tures of, 49-52. 

Utah, admitted to the union, 497. 

Utrecht, treaty of, 108, 147. 



540 



HISTORY OF THE Ui^ITED STATES 



Valley Forge, the winter at, 197, 
198. 

Van Bureu, Martin, secretary of 
state, ;^10 ; elected vice-president, 
HIO ; elected president. 317 : ad- 
ministration of, 317-320 : sketch 
of life, 317-318 : nominated for 
president by Free-soil party, 347. 

Vera t'ruz (va'ra krooz), founded, 
2() : battle of, 341. 

Vermont, admitted. 253. 

Verrazano (ver-ra-tsa'no), Giovan- 
ni, 34. 

Vespucius, Americus, voyages and 
narratives. 32 ; portrait, 41. 

Vicksburg, campaign against, 425- 
427. 

Vikings, reported discoveries of, 20, 
21. 

Virginia, named, 43 ; Raleigh's col- 
onies in, 43. 44 : settlement at 
Jamestown. (55 : first charter, 65 ; 
character of first colonists, 65. 
(56 : second charter. 67 ; third 
charter. 67 : communism and 
Dale's laws. 67 ; map of, 68 ; in- 
dentured service in. 69 : negro 
slavery in. 69 ; traffic in tobacco, 
68. 69 : first representative as- 
sembly or House of Burgesses, 
70. 71 ; written constitution, 70 ; 
Indian massacres. 70. 71 ; char- 
ter revoked. 71 : Berkeley and 
Bacon, 72. 73 : Bacon's rebellion. 
73 ; Huguenots in. 129 : religion 
in, 134 : products of, 138 : La- 
fayette saves. 212 ; resolutions, 
259 ; University of. 260 : seces- 
sion of. 400 ; is readmitted. 472. 

Virginia Company. The. 45. 

Virginius, The, 474. 

Walker. Robert .7.. secretary of 
the treasury. 343 ; territorial 
governor of Kansas. 371. 372. 

Walker. William, and filibustering 
expeditions. 360. 361. 

War. with Indians. 83-86 ; inter- 
colonial. 104-109 : French and 
Indian. 110-122: Revolutionary. 
171-220: Tripolitan. 267. 268; 
of 1812. 277-286 : Seminole. 288. 
289 : Black Hawk and Florida. 
316: civil. 398-453; Spanish- 
American. 499-501. 

Ward. Artemas, 173. 

Warner. Seth. at Crown Point, 174. 

Warren, .loseph. 156 : fell at battle 
of Bunker Hill. 176. 

Washington, city of. became capital 
of United States in 1800. 250. 
251 : burned bv British. 284 : map 
of, 403 ; threatened in 1861. 403, 
404. 

Washington admitted to the union. 
497. 

Washington. George, in Virginia's 
service. Ill ; at Fort Necessity. 
Ill ; at Fort Duquesne, 115 ; coat 



of arms of, 130 ; colonial leader, 
155 ; appointed commander-in- 
chief of American army, 174 ; 
forced British to evacuate Bos- 
ton, 177, 178 : at New York, 185 ; 
retreats from Brooklyn. 187, 188 : 
victories of, at Trenton and 
I'rinceton, 190. 101 ; at Morris- 
town, 191 : used stars and stripes 
at Brandywine. 195 ; Conway 
cabal against. 198 : 200, 204, 207, 
209, 210 : at Yorktown. 212. 213 ; 
proclaims cessation of hostilities, 
215 : bids farev.-ell to officers, 
217, 218; retires to Mount Ver- 
non. 217 : in constitutional con- 
vention. 228. 229 : elected presi- 
dent. 246 : inaugurated, 246 ; ad- 
ministration of. 247-255 ; fare- 
well address of. 254. 255. 

Wayne. General Anthony, captures 
Stony I'oint. 204. 205 ; in the 
Northwest Territory. 253. 

Webster. Daniel. 249. 295 : debate 
with Hayne. 314 ; the expounder 
of the constitution. 314 : secre- 
tary of state. 321 ; negotiates 
treaty with (ireat Britain. 324 ; 
Bunker Hill monument oration. 
326 ; seventh of March speech of. 
351 ; death of. 354 ; compared 
with Clay and Calhoun. 354. 355. 

Welsh. The. in the colonies, 126. 

Wesley. Charles. 103. 

Wesley. John. 103. 

West Virginia, campaign of Civil 
War in. 401, 402 ; admitted to 
the union. 457. 

Weymouth. George. 44. 

Whig party, in the colonies. 154. 
155 ; origin of. in United States. 
315. 316; 317. 320 ; opposed Mex- 
ican war, 337 ; 356 ; death of, 
356. 

Whiskey Insurrection. 253 ; the 
Whiskey Ring. 478. 

White. John, leader of one of the 
Raleigh colonies. 44. 

Wliitney. Kli. invents the cotton 
gin. 254. 

Wilderness, battle of the. 443. 

William and Mary College, 142. 
260. 

Williams. Roger, character of. 79; 
founds Trovidence. 87-88 ; a 
Welshman. 126. 

Wilmot Proviso. 343. 344. 

Wilson Bill. 496. 

Winchester, battle of. 446. 

Winthrop. John, governor of Mass. 
Bav Colony. 78. 

Winthrop. John. Jr.. 82. 

Wirt. William. anti-Masonic candi- 
date for president. 315. 

W)s<'onsin. admitted to the union, 
•'^46. 

Witherspoon, John, signer of Dec- 
laration, president of Princeton 
College. 156. 



IN^DEX 541 

Wolfe, James, General, commander X. Y. Z. correspondence '^jT 

of English at Quebec, 115-117. ' *" ' 
Wood. General Leonard, governor 

of Cuba, r>0;5. Yale Goi.legb. 148. 

Wood, .Tetbro, inventor of steel Yale, Elihu, 143 

plow, 393. Yeardley (yeerd'li). Sir George, 

Writs of Assistance, 160. 161. governor of Virginia. 70. 

Wyandotte constitution. 373. Yorktown, battle of. 213 ■ map of 

Wyoming admitted to the union, 213 ; effect of battle, in America! 

407. 213. 214; effect, on the British, 

Wyoming massacre, 200, 201. 214 ; taken in 1862 417. 



W6i ^m 

\9 






O' 



OK 



' \-^^\/ v^-/ v^*y 

• ^^-^ - 
















5^"^c 



'-^^.^ 








• .<b^"vr, 









L*o '^ A*^ ♦sua'- "^ <^'^^ •rf^'lf/>J;- ^ ^^ ♦ 
l^^S ^/\. 'o^P*- .♦^^ ^-^^-^ ^^^% "^ 

^ • • • • -0 O. '© • » * 






<> *'T 



..^' 






^ 





.•t^Xv 







"OK 



'.^ 



*. > 




% 



^* 



<? 



.* . 




^ 4 













